The Mummy, chapters on Egyptian funerary archaeology

Source and rights: Internet Archive historical scan, published 1893. The source text below is imported without translation or rewriting.

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THE MUMMY

bonbon: C. J. CLAY and SONS,

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS WAREHOUSE,

AVE MARIA LANE.

ttambrtojit: DEIGHTON, BELL AND CO.

3Letp>ig: F. A. BROCKHAUS.

fkfo gorfe: MACMILLAN AND CO.

THE MUMMY

CHAPTERS ON EGYPTIAN FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY

BY

E. A. WALLIS BUDGE, Litt.D., F.S.A.,

ACTING ASSISTANT-KEEPER IN THE DEPARTMENT OF EGYPTIAN AND ASSYRIAN ANTIQUITIES, BRITISH MUSEUM

WITH EIGHTY-EIGHT ILLUSTRATIONS

CAMBRIDGE AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS

1893

[All Rights reserved]

Cambridge

PRINTED BY C. J. CLAY M.A. AND SONS AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS

from plates prepared by Messrs Harrison & Sons, London.

DEDICATED TO

JOHN PEILE, Litt.D.,

MASTER OF CHRIST’S COLLEGE. CAMBRIDGE

A MARK OF GRATITUDE AND REGARD

PREFACE.

The chapters contained in this book were originally written to form the Introduction to the Catalogue of the Egyptian Collection in the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, which I wrote for the Syndics of that institution ; they are intended to supply the information necessary for under- standing the object and use of the antiquities described therein. In the hope, however, that they may be of service to all such as are interested in the antiquities of Egypt, it has been decided to publish them in a separate form.

The monuments and remains of ancient Egypt preserved in the great museums of Europe and Egypt are chiefly of a sepulchral character, and we owe them entirely to the belief of the Egyptians that the soul would at some period revivify the body, and to the care, consequent on this belief, with which they embalmed the bodies of their dead, so that they might resist the action of decay, and be ready for the return of the soul. The preservation of the embalmed body, or mummy, was the chief end and aim of every Egyptian who wished for everlasting life. For the sake of the mummy’s safety tombs were hewn, papyri were inscribed with com- positions, the knowledge of which would enable him to repel the attacks of demons, ceremonies were performed and services were recited ; for the sake of the comfort of the mummy and his kay or genius, the tombs were decorated with scenes which would remind him of those with which he was familiar when upon earth, and they were also provided with many objects used by him in daily life, so that his tomb

VI PREFACE.

might resemble as much as possible his old home. Following up the idea that the mummy is the most important of all objects, I have given an account of the various methods of embalming ; of the amulets and other objects which formed the mummy’s dress ; of the various kinds of coffins and sarcophagi in which he was laid ; of the ushabtiu and other figures, stelae, vases, etc., which formed the furniture of a well appointed tomb : and also of the most important classes of tombs hewn or built in different dynasties. In the series of articles which form this account I have given the information which the experience gained from the service of some years in the British Museum has shown me to be the most needed both by those who, though possessing no special knowledge of Egyptian antiquities, are yet greatly interested in them, and by those who have formed, or who are about to form, Egyptian collections. Frequent reference has been made to the great national collection in the British Museum because the an- tiquities there are accessible to all. With a view of applying the facts stated in these articles to a particular case, an account of an Egyptian funeral beginning with the process of mummifying the body and ending with its deposit in the tomb has been added.

In the somewhat lengthy chapter on the Rosetta Stone, the evidence of the principal Greek writers on Egyptian hieroglyphics is brought together. The statement of the facts connected with the history of Egyptian decipherment, as well as the extracts from the papers on this subject col- lected by Leitch in his edition of the Miscellaneous Works by the late Thomas Young, London, 1855, and by Dean Peacock in his Life of Thomas Young, London, 1855, seems to show that the labours of Akerblad and Young were of more importance than is usually attributed to them ; the views of Egyptologists quoted at the end of that chapter will indicate the prevailing opinion of experts on this matter.

E. A. WALLIS BUDGE.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

PAGE

The Pyramid of Medum 12

Statue of Chephren …….. 13

The Shekh el-Beled 16

The entrance to the tombs at Beni-hasan . . . . 20

The Colossi at Thebes 35

Seti I. in battle 39

Rameses II. when a child 41

The Rosetta Stone inscribed in honour of Ptolemy V.,

Epiphanes 108

Egyptian Funeral Procession. I. From the Papyrus of Ani . 168

Egyptian Funeral Procession. II. From the Papyrus of Ani . 170

View of the Coffin Chamber 172

Mummy of Artemidorus 186

“Canopic"Jar 196

Ushabti figure of the Scribe Pa-mer-ahu . . . .211

Ptah-Seker-Ausar figure with stand for holding a portion of a

mummied body or papyrus 215

Ptah-Seker-Ausar figure which held the papyrus of Anhai, a

priestess of Amen, about B.C. 900 216

Stele of Antef, son of Amen-set 218

Egyptian gods : —

Amen-Ra . . . . . . . . . 269

Amsu 269

Ra . . . . . . . . . . 270

Heru (Horus) 270

Heru-pa-chrat (Harpocrates) 271

Chensu . . . 271

Chensu Nefer-hetep . . , . . . .272

Atmu 272

Vlll LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Egyptian gods {continued) : — page

Nefer-Atmu 273

Ptah 273

Ptah-Tatenen 274

I-em-hetep (Imouthis) 274

Chnemu (Chnoumis) 275

Chepera 275

Tehuti (Thoth) 275

Set 277

Ausar (Osiris) 277

Auset (Isis) 278

Nebt-het (Nephthys) 278

Anpu (Anubis) 280

Shu 280

Hapi (Nile) 281

Hapi (Apis) 281

Ur-mer (Mnevis Bull) 283

Mestha 283

Hapi 284

Tuamautef . . 284

Qebhsennuf 284

Sati 285

Anqet . 285

Sebek 286

An-heru 286

Bes . .287

Bast 289

Net(Neith) . . 290

Mut ………. 290

Maat . … 291

Het-Heru (Hathor) 291

Shu lifting Nut from Seb 292

Nut 293

Seb ………. 293

Serq (Selk) 294

Maahes . . 295

Seker 295

Ta-urt (Thoueris) 296

Sefech-Aabu 296

Sphinx , » 298

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

IX

PAGE

The lady Nai 302

Woman kneading bread 303

The Scribe Kha-f-Ra 334

Limestone statue 304

Statue of Ti 305

Statue of Ra-nefer 305

Section of the Tomb of Rameses II 316

Plan of the Tomb of Rameses II. 316

Three Mastabas at Gizeh 317

Entrance to a Mastaba at Sakkarah 317

Plan of a Mastaba with four serdabs 317

Longitudinal section of a Mastaba 318

Transverse section of a Mastaba 318

Transverse section at the bottom of a serdab . . . 319

Upper chamber, pit and sarcophagus chamber of a Mastaba . 320

Mastaba at Gizeh with double pit 321

Figures in relief in a Mastaba at Gizeh . . . #> .322

West wall of a chamber in the tomb of Ptah-hetep . . 323

Winnowing wheat 326

Netting wild fowl 326

Bakers making bread . . . . . . . .327

Cattle on the march 327

The Great Pyramid and the three small Pyramids . . . 329

Section of the Pyramid of Cheops at Gizeh …. ^^^

CONTENTS.

•#■:$-

The Egyptian Race and Language

The Land of Egypt

Egyptian Chronology

The History of Egypt,

them by

Dynasties I.-XXX. „ „ Persian Rulers of Egypt

„ „ Macedonian Rulers of Egypt

„ „ The Ptolemies …

„ ,, The Romans

„ „ The Byzantines …

,, ,, The Muhammadans

List of Egyptian Dynasties and the dates assigned to

Egyptologists List of Nomes of Upper and Lower Egypt List of the Cartouches of the Principal Egyptian Kings The Rosetta Stone : —

Greek writers on hieroglyphics, Hecataeus, Hellanicus,

Democritus, Herodotus Diodorus, Strabo, Chaeremon, John Tzetzes, Hermapion,

Clement of Alexandria, Porphyry, Horapollo… Labours of Kircher and Jablonski… Young and Champollion and their successors Young’s hieroglyphic alphabet Champollion’s method of obtaining a hieroglyphic

alphabet… Opinions of Egyptologists on the labours of Young and

Champollion … … … … … 148-152

Modern hieroglyphical literature … … … … 153

^>*-An Egyptian Funeral … .. … … … 1 5 3-173

-Mummy, Methods of Mummifying … … … 173-189

^Muramy Cloth and Akhmim Embroideries … … … 189

Canopic Jars and the inscriptions upon them … … … 194

Chests for Canopic Jars 201

The Book of the Dead 202

, 69

7o-75 76-107

112

125 127 141

145

XII

CONTKNTS.

, Combs,

Pillows

Ushabtiu figures …

Ptah-Seker-Ausar figures…

Sepulchral Boxes “-Funereal Cones or models of Loaves of Bread. “Stelae

Vases

Objects for the ‘1 oilet, Mirrors, Tweezers, Hair-pins Fans, AW//-pots, Oils

Necklaces, Rings, Bracelets, etc.

Scarabs. Their signification. Funereal, ornamental and his- torical scarabs. Texts engraved on scarabs. Scarabs of Amenophis III. Phoenician Scarabs. Scarabs found at Ialysos, Kamiros, Tharros, Arban, Babylon, etc. Scarabs used by Gnostics …

Amulets : —

The Buckle or Tie J| — Hieroglyphic texts

TheTet^ .

The Vulture

The Collar^? ..

The Papyrus Sceptre

The Pillow g

The Heart Q»

The Anch ■?•

The Utchat

The

The Sam

The Horizon cQd

The Shen Q

The Crown of the North V/

„ South Q

The Menat

PAGE. 2IO 21 I

215 2l6 2l8 2l8

222

225 23O

Nefer T

231

256

259 260 260 261 261 262 263 263 264 264 264 264 265

265 265

CONTENTS. xiii

PAGE.

The Cartouche CZDI … … … … … 265

The Neha [p1 265

The Serpent’s Head “2^^ • •• … … … … 265

The Disk and Plumes )Ji 265

The Frog J^ 265

The Staircase t/_\ … … … … … … 266

The Fingers … … … … … … 266

Figures of. the Gods : —

Amen-Ea (j^^^^0 J 268

Amsu ^p^ 270

R^TI -

Heru (Horus) V\ 3 … 271

Menthu-Ra “^ — s > ° J 271

Heru-pa-chrat (Harpocrates) v^. /V\ ft) J] 27*

Chensu (Chonsu) ® 0 % J 272

f-k*

AtmulU^ ^Jh 272

Pt<M *73

Ptah-Seker-Ausar 9^=^ Hi) 274

I-em-hetep (Imouthis) H f\ ^J 274

Chnemu (Chnoumis) Qm^^5 275

Tehuti (Thoth) ^% 276

8"Poi-“m 2”

Ausar (Osiris) r| $ 277

Auset(Isis) jig j| 279

Nebt-fcet (Nephthys) 7T ^ J 279

XIV

CONTENTS.

Anpu (Anubis) () n ^^

atV* □ X c

Apuat \J ^^

D X o | |

Shu

Hapi (the Nile)

AAAAAA _ . \ AAAAAA

LI \ AAAAAA

I

-<2>-

Hapi (Apis) | ^ Ausar-Hapi (Serapis) rj S\ Mnevis ^^ LT1 ^J Mestha^=]y

Hapi

A

Tuamautef * Qebhsennuf

Sebek fl J

£\ AAAAAA

and Anqet

The four children of Horus

J} A

AAAAAA C^

m<

Anher ft ^

Besjiy …

s— ^ …

lis!

www A. I ’ I

Mut

Bast t)?*

Nit(Neith)X=X J… Matt ^^j

Het-heru (Hathor)

COD

Nu

and Nut

0 o

PAGF.

279

28o 2 80 28l

282 282 282

283

283 284

288 288

289 289 289 29O 29O

293

CONTENTS.

XV

Seb

u

Serq(Selk) ^"^3?$

Maahes ]^ (| | H Q

Neheb-ka^^yUm^ …

Seker^=-&$

Ta-urt (Thoueris)

Figures of Animals, etc., sacred to the gods Ape

Hippopotamus Cow Lion Sphinx Bull Ram Cat Jackal Hare

Hippopotamus Hedgehog . . Shrew-mouse Stag

Ichneumon .. Crocodile . . Vulture Hawk Ibis

Oxyrhynchus

Phagrus… Fishes -{ Latus …

Silurus … ^ Lepidotus

Frog

Toad

Scorpion

Uraeus

Beetle

PAGE. 294

294

294

295 295 297

297 298 298 298

298 299 299 299 299 299 290 299 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 301 301 301

xvi CONTENTS.

1’AOP

Figures of Kings and Private Persons … … 30 1

Coffins … … … … … … … … 306

Sarcophagi … … … … … … … 310

Egyptian Tombs : —

Mastabas … … … … … … … 318

Pyramids … … … … … … … 328

Theban Tombs … … … … … … 343

Egyptian Writing Materials : —

The Papyrus … … … … … … 349

Palette 350

Reeds and Ink … … … … … … 352

Egyptian Writing : — “]

Hieroglyphic, Hieratic, and Demotic K … ,., … 053 Coptic Writing and Language … J

Mummies of Animals, Reptiles, Birds, and Fishes : —

Apis Bull 356

Antelope … … … … … … … 356

Cat 356

Crocodile … … … … … … … 356

Shrew-mouse … … … … … … 356

Ichneumon … … … … … … … 356

Ibis 357

Hawk 357

Frog - ••• 357

Toad 357

Scorpion 357

Beetle

Snake … … ….

Fish 357

CippiofHorus 358

The Egyptian Months, and their names, in Coptic, Greek,

and Arabic … … … … 363

Egyptian and Coptic Numbers … … … … … 364

A List of Common Hieroglyphic Characters … … … 366

A List of Common Determinatives … … … … 375

357

357

THE HISTORY OF EGYPT.1

The date of the period when the land of Egypt was taken Antiquity possession of by the race of people which we are accustomed Egyptians to call Egyptian is unknown. None of the researches which have been carried on by historians, philologists, anthropolo- gists and archaeologists has, up to the present, given us any information from which we may reasonably hope to arrive at a decision as to the time when this event took place. And just as we know nothing of the period of the advent of the invaders, so also we know nothing of the aboriginal people whom we may assume they found living there when they arrived. The Egyptian aborigines are thought by some to have been a dark-skinned race, and to have belonged to the negro family. Whatever may be the truth on these points, it is pretty clear that no traces of their works or buildings have come down to us, and as skulls belonging to their time have not been found, any statement as to their race characteristics must be based on pure assumption.

About the race to which the Egyptian known to us from mummies and statues belongs and his characteristics, there is

1 Among the books which derive their information about the history of Egypt from native sources, and are all important for the study of Egyptian History, must be mentioned: — Champollion-Figeac, Egypte Ancienne, Paris, 1839; Rosellini, Monumenti Storici, Pisa, 1832-1844; Bunsen, Aegyptens Sidle in der Weltgeschichte, Gotha, 1844-1857 (English translation with supplementary addi- tions by the late Dr. Birch, Vols. 1-5, London, 1857) ; Lepsius, Chronologie der Aegypter, Berlin, 1849 ‘■> Lepsius, Konigsbuch, Berlin, 1858 ; Brugsch, Geschichte Aegyptens, Leipzig, 1859 (English translation by Danby Seymour and Philip Smith, B.A., 2 vols., 2nd ed., London, 1881) ; Birch, Egypt from the earliest Times to B.C. 300, London, 1880; Wiedemann, Aegyptische Geschichte, Gotha, 1884; Meyer, Geschichte des alten Aegyptens, Berlin, 1887, with Einleitung. Geographie des alten Aegyptens, Schrift und Sprache seiner Bewohner, by Dumichen; and Mariette, Apercu de V Histoire Ancienne <P Egypte, Paris, 1867. Interesting and popular works on this subject are contained in Maspero, Histoire Anciemie des Peuples de V Orient, 1st ed., 1875, and Lenormant, Histoire Ancienne de T Orient, Paris, 1882.

B. M. r

FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT.

Asia the original home of the Egyptians.

Evidence of skulls and an- tiquities.

no doubt whatever. He was a Caucasian, and it would seem that he came to Egypt from an original home in Asia. He wandered, or was driven, forth from there, and travelling in a south-westerly or westerly direction, after a number of years arrived at a place to the north of the Red Sea, probably the Isthmus of Suez, the " bridge of nations.” Of the time occupied by the immigrant in making his way from Asia to Egypt nothing can be said ; it is quite certain, however, that when he arrived he brought a high civilization with him. Following the statement of Diodorus Siculus,1 it was the fashion some years ago to state in books of history that the ancient Egyptian was a negro, and some distinguished historians still make the statement that " the fundamental character of the Egyptian in respect of physical type, language, and tone of thought, is Nigritic.“2 That neither the Egyptian nor his civilization is of Nigritic origin is proved by the inscriptions and by the evidence of an ever-increasing number of statues of kings, and of high officials in their service, who lived during the earliest times of the rule of the invaders over Egypt. Prof. Owen’s opinion on this subject is as follows : " Taking the sum of the correspondence notable in collections of skulls from Egyptian graveyards as a probable indication of the hypothetical primitive race originating the civilized conditions of cranial departure from the skull-character of such race, that race was certainly not of the Australioid type, is more suggestive of a northern Nubian or Berber basis. But such suggestive characters may be due to intercourse or ’ admix- ture’ at periods later than [the] Xlllth dynasty; they are not present, or in a much less degree, in the skulls, features, and physiognomies of individuals of from the Illrd to the Xllth dynasties.“3 If the pure ancient Egyptian, as found in mummies and represented in paintings upon the tombs, be compared with the negro, we shall find that they are abso- lutely unlike in every particular. The negro is prognathous, but the Egyptian is orthognathous ; the bony structure of the

1 Bk. iii. 3. 1. (ed. Didot, p. 128).

2 G. Rawlinson, Andent Egypt, 1887, p. 24.

3 Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, Vol. IV. p. 239.

EGYPTIAN LANGUAGE. 3

negro is heavier and stronger than that of the Egyptian ; the Features hair of the negro is crisp and woolly, while that of the Egyptian. Egyptian is smooth and fine. The Egyptian was usually of slender build, with broad shoulders, sinewy arms and legs, and long hands and feet. His head was small, with large eyes, full cheeks, broad mouth, lips inclined to be full, and square chin. The nose was short and not aquiline. It will be observed, too, that if we add that the Egyptian was dark complexioned, the above particulars will agree very well with their general description by Ammianus Marcellinus (xxii. 16, 23) : " Homines autem Aegyptii plerique subfusculi sunt et atrati * magis quam maesti oris, gracilenti et aridi, ad

singulos motus excandescentes " When an Egyptian

had an aquiline nose, it indicated that he had Semitic blood in his veins ; the aquiline nose was hardly ever met with in Upper Egypt.2 But it is quite as impossible to show that the Egyptian was a Semite, as some have attempted to do, as that he was a negro.

The language of the Egyptian as known to us by the Opinions inscriptions which he left behind him belongs wholly neither onlhe0^ to the Indo-European nor to the Semitic family of languages, affinity of The only known language which it resembles is Coptic, and this is now pretty well understood to be a dialect of the language of the hieroglyphics. Benfey3 endeavoured to show that the Egyptian had sprung from a Semitic stock, and De Rouge,4 Ebers and Brugsch5 have followed in his steps.

1 See also Herodotus, ii. 104.

2 Here and elsewhere I have reproduced passages from my Prefatory Remarks on the unrolling the Mummy of ’ Bak-ran, privately printed, London, 1890. See Ebers, Aegypten und die Bilcher Moses, i. p. 46 ff. and Wiedemann, Aegyptische Geschichte, p. 25.

3 The whole of the facts which favour the theory that the Egyptian is allied to the Semitic languages are collected in his work Ueber das Verhaltniss der Aegyptischen Sprache zum Setnitischen Sprachstamme, Leipzig, 1844.

4 Memoire sur Vinscription du tombeau cfAhmes, p. 195. " et

presque toujours un fait curieux a ete mis en evidence, a savoir, que la grammaire de la langue antique se rapproche bien plus decidement des caracteres propres aux idiomes semitiques.”

5 Wdrterbuch, I. Vorrede, ss. 9-12. " Es steht mir n’amlich fest, dass die alt’agyptische Sprache, d. h. die alteste Gestaltung derselben, im Semitischen wurzelt und dass wir von hieraus alle jene Erscheinungen zu erklaren haben, welche sonst ohne jede Ausflosung dastehen wiiiden.”

B 2

4 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT.

Barthelemy, de Guignes, Giorgi, de Rossi and Kopp pro- claimed unhesitatingly the identity of Coptic with Hebrew,1 but Quatremere in his Recherches critiques et historiques sur la langue ct la literature de VEgypte, p. 16, declared that Coptic was without affinity with any other language, and that it was a mother tongue. Dr. Lepsius tried to show by the names of the numerals and alphabets that the Indo-European, Semitic and Coptic families of languages were originally identical,2 and Schwartze 3 asserted that Coptic was analogous to the Semitic languages in its grammar, and to the Indo-European languages by its roots ; but that it was more akin to the Semitic languages in its simple character and lack of logical structure. Bunsen and Paul de Lagarde thought that the Egyptian language represented a pre-historic layer of Semi- tism, and tried to show that the forms and the roots of the ancient Egyptian could be explained neither by Aryan nor Semitic singly, but by both of these families together, and that they formed in some way the transition from one to the other.4 Stern in his Koptische Grammatik, p. 4, says : — " Es besteht eine alte Verwandtschaft zwischen der aegypti- schen, welche dem hamitischen Stamme angehort, und den semitischen Sprachen, wie sich unverkennbar noch in der pronominalbildung und in manchen gemeinsamen Wurzeln zeigt ; doch scheint sich das aegyptische von den asiatischen Schwestern friih getrennt zu haben und seinen eigenen Weg

gegangen zu sein Die allgemeine Stammverwandtschaft

der beiden Sprachen ist durch weitgehende Lautverschiebun- gen und Veranderungen verdeckt.” Prof. W. Wright thought that “we have not a few structural affinities, which may perhaps be thought sufficient to justify those linguists who hold that Egyptian is a relic of the earliest age of Semitism, or of Semitic speech as it was before it passed into the peculiar form in which we maybe said to know it historically.” (Comparative Grammar of the Semitic Languages, p. 34.)

1 Renan, Histoire Generate des Langnes Semitiques, p. 80.

2 Ueber den Ursprung und die Verwandtschaft der Zahlworter in der Indo- Germanischen, Semitischen und Koptischen Sprache, Berlin, 1836.

3 Das alte Aegypten, pp. 976, 1033.

4 Renan, op. cit., p. 82.

EGYPTIAN LANGUAGE. 5

Quite recently Dr. Erman has discussed1 the question of the affinity of the language of the hieroglyphics with the Semitic dialects, and he is of opinion that a relationship undoubtedly exists. To support this view he prints a list of Egyptian words with what he and I believe to be their Semitic equivalents, and he thinks that the number of such words might be considerably increased if we were able to recover the radicals which are hidden in their hieroglyphic forms. His arguments are carefully thought out and his facts ably put together, and he has made an important contri- bution towards the settlement of a difficult subject.

On the other hand Renan, Max Miiller, and others, do not admit the connexion between Egyptian and the Semitic languages in any way whatever. Renan does not seek to deny that the proposed relationships between Coptic and Semitic dictionaries have something seductive about them, but he cannot admit that they form any scientific proof; he considers them to be accidents rather than organic analogies, as shown by the following list : — 2

Egyptian. Coptic.

Sing- *• t] anuk I <LrtOK

/WVW\

,, 2. m. ^ ^ entuk thou rtOOK

s — ^

/W\AAA

„ 2. f. <2 entut thou ftOO

/vww\

„ 3. m. ^ <2 entuf he ftOOCJ „ 3. f. ^ (g entus she ft-GOC

Hebrew.

nn« for ptftiN L-Jt t

VlN for injfcj ^^\ anti

1 Z.D.M.G., Band XLVI. pp. 93-129.

2 See however Wright {Comparative Grammar, p. 33), “An examination of the Coptic alone readily suggests several considerations in support of this view {i.e., that Egyptian is descended from the same stock as the Semitic languages]. For example, there is the marvellous similarity, almost amounting to identity, of the personal pronouns, both separate and suffixed — a class of words which languages of radically different families are not apt to borrow from one another '’

FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT.

Egyptian.

Coptic.

A/V\AAA

Plur. i. »**** enen we A.rtOrt i i i

Hebrew. WON. 13N

Tk www entuten you ftOCOXeit DfiN for DJJJM ^j\ ««/*«

3. Ik 1 £«ta they IteCJUOT

Egyptian

and

Coptic.

Egyptian and “Ha

The identity of the pronouns, and especially the manner in which they are treated in the two groups of languages, he considers a remarkable fact, and goes on to say that this identity is observed even in the details which seem the most secondary. Several apparent irregularities of the Semitic pronoun, as for example, the changing of the T\ into *”[ in the affix, even find in the theory of the Coptic pronoun a satis- factory explanation. The analogies of the nouns of number pointed out by Lepsius are not less striking, for example : —

Egyptian.

Ill

l>1

D £

Coptic

sen, two crt<LT (masc.) D^Jttf

suit or sas, six COOT ttfttf

sexef, seven cy^-Cyq JDttJ

Xemennu, eight UJJUlHIt HJbiP

The conjugation itself is not without some analogies in the two languages ; the present tense in Coptic, like the imperfect of the Semitic languages, is formed by the agglu- tination of the pronoun at the beginning of the verbal root, and the other tenses are formed by means of a composition like those which the Aramean languages make use of. Having admitted these facts, Renan goes on to say that the problem whether these resemblances are merely such things as are to be found in all languages, or analogies which spring from a common origin is, to say the truth, almost unsolvable. We must then make for the language and civilization of Egypt a family by itself, which may be called Hamitic}

1 Renan, op. cit., pp. 84, 85, 89.

THE LAND OF EGYPT. 7

According to Prof. Max Mliller and others, " the Egyptian Max Mul- and the Semitic languages belong to quite different stages ersviews- of language, the former to what Prof. Max Miiller calls the second or Terminational, the latter to the third or Inflexional stage. In the Terminational stage, two or more roots may coalesce to form a word, the one retaining its radical independence, the other sinking down to a mere termination. The languages belonging to this stage have generally been called agglutinative. Now the Egyptian language has indeed reached this stage as regards the pro- nominal and one or two other suffixes. But in all other respects it most nearly resembles the languages of the first or Radical stage, in which there is no formal distinction between a root and a word.-” l A theory has been put forth by Dr. Strassmaier that a relationship exists between the Accadian Egyptian, and Egyptian languages, and he printed a small list of ^n°^tlc’ Egyptian, Coptic and Accadian words which he thought to Accadian. be identical. If Egypt and Mesopotamia were conquered by branches of the same Accadian-speaking race this is only what might be expected. See his paper, Akkadisch und Aegyptisck, in the Album2 presented to M. Leemans.

The land of Egypt was commonly called by its inhabitants Country of

j\ ^ Kamt, because of the dark colour of the soil, and

if the colour of the ground for a few miles on each side of the Nile be compared with the Arabian and Libyan desert the appropriateness of the name Kam or Kamt is at once evident. Another old name of Egypt is Ta-merd, “the land

^x_nr sps i_n ^\PP a

of the inundation, ’ <== N 1 © , \rf > ^ , or ^Ff ^? ^ ;

two other names for the country are 1 A @ Beqet, apparently having reference to Egypt as an olive-bearing land, and

1 Rcnouf, Hibbert Lectures, pp. 5 5—6 1 . The question of Fronominal forms in Egyptian has been discussed by this writer in the Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archceology, March, 1888, pp. 247-264, and in this paper he states that pronouns like a?mk, entuk, entuf etc., are formed of a series of demonstrative elements ; anuk = a + nu +• k, entuk = en + tu + k, entuf = en + tu — f.

2 Etudes Archeologiques, Lingtiistiques et Hisioriques, dediees a Dr. C. Leemans. Leicie, 1885, pp. 105-107.

Egypt.

8

FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OE EGYPT.

Native names of Egypt.

Nomes of Egypt.

\f v^~o Baqet. Upper Egypt was commonly called

Ta-res or ^Ff ^+-A ® Ta-qemd, " the land of the South,” and

Lower Egypt ^f?W* Ta-meh, “the land of the North.”

Upper and Lower Egypt were represented in the inscriptions

by the following: ±* , YT°, M, 3 3, U 4, ^M”.

The Hebrews called Egypt " Mizraim,” and the Assyrians and Babylonians Musur ; it is given this latter name in the cuneiform despatches of Tushratta, King of Mitani, about B.C. 1550. Upper Egypt extended from Aswan (Syene) to Memphis, and Lower Egypt, beginning at Memphis, included the Delta and sea-coast.

From the earliest times Egypt appears to have been divided into a series of districts which the Egyptians called

hesp

and the Greeks Nofiol or Nomes. Each nome

had its capital city and temple for worship, its own feasts, its own sacred animals and trees, and its own protecting deity. The limits of each nome were most carefully marked, and the amount of cultivated land, the amount of land available for agricultural purposes after a high Nile, and the canals with their various branches, were all known.1 Each nome with its independent administration, formed, practically, a small but complete state.

The number of the nomes according to classical authors varies ; Diodorus, who says (i. 54) that the nome dates from the time of Sesostris, gives thirty-six, Pliny 2 forty-five. The number usually given in Egyptian lists is forty-two : twenty- two in Upper Egypt, and twenty in Lower Egypt. Hepta- nomis, or Middle Egypt, appears to have been the district between the Thebaid and the Delta ; its seven nomes are said to have been Memphites, Heracleopolites, Crocodilopo- lites, Aphroditopolites, Oxyrhynchites, Cynopolites, Hermo- polites. The Greater and Lesser Oases were considered to be parts of Heptanomis.

1 A list of the nomes is given at the end of the chapter on Egyptian History.

2 He calls them praefectaras oppidorumt (v. 9, 9). The nomes and their chief towns are given by Ptolemy, Geographiac^ iv. 5, ed. Mercator, pp. 105-108.

EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 9

Over the early history of Egypt there hangs a mystery The greater than that which shrouds the origin and home of the “^iod^ Egyptian ; of the period which preceded Mena (Menes), the Egyptian first historical king of Egypt, nothing is known. According to Manetho a race of demi-gods and kings from This, near Abydos, and from Memphis ruled over Egypt before the advent of Mena, and these may possibly correspond with the shesii Heru or " followers of Horus " of the Turin papyrus, the list of kings on which begins with god-kings and ends with the rule of the Hyksos at the end of the XVI Ith dynasty or about B.C. 1700. The work of Manetho of Sebennytus on Early Egyptian history is, unfortunately, lost. He was alive about hlstonans> B.C. 271, and is said to have been a contemporary of Ptolemy I. ; his Egyptian history was composed during the reign of Ptolemy II. Philadelphus, B.C. 286-247. Extracts from this work are given us by Josephus {contra Apion. I., 14), which refer to the reigns of the kings of the XV— XlXth dynasties. In Eusebius and Julius Africanus (fragments of whose work TrevTaftiftXiov XP0V0^°‘Y1>,C°V are preserved in Eusebius) there are given a list of Egyptian dynasties, and the number of the years of the reign of each king-. This list is one of the most valuable documents which have come down to us, for Manetho, by reason of his position as priest and his knowledge of the ancient Egyptian language, had access to, and was able to make use of, the ancient Egyptian literature in a way which no other writer seems to have done. The thirty dynasties of Egyptian kings he Lists of divides into three periods, thus : Dynasties I. — XL, Dynasties ings” XII.— XIX., and Dynasties XX.— XXX. It must, however, be understood that the Egyptian did not group the kings into dynasties, and this fact is evident from the Tablet of Abydos and the Tablet of Sakkarah. The Tablet of Abydos, discovered by Diimichen in the Temple of Osiris, at Abydos, in 1864, gives the names of seventy-five kings, beginning with Mena or Menes, and ending with Seti I., the father of Rameses II. ; it is not a complete list, and there is nothing to show why certain names are omitted. The Tablet of Sakkarah, discovered by Mariette at Sakkarah, was inscribed during the reign of Rameses II., and it gives

iO

FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT.

Uncer- tainty of Egyptian Chrono- logy.

the names of forty-seven kings, agreeing closely, in the matter of selection of names, with the Tablet of Abydos. The name of Mer-ba-pen, the sixth king of the 1st dynasty, is that which begins this list. The Tablet of Karnak was disco- vered at Karnak by Burton and was taken to Paris by Prisse. It was inscribed during the reign of Thothmes III., and contains the names of sixty-one kings. Notwithstanding the fact that in the arrangement no chronological order has been followed, the tablet is of great value, for it mentions the names of some of the kings of from the XHIth to the XVIIth dynasties, and gives the names of those of the Xlth dynasty more fully than any other list. The names of the kings in Manetho’s list are in many instances corrupt ; by the help of the monuments, however, the greater number can be corrected, and the value of the document is the more assured as more of the historical inscriptions become known.

The chronology of Egypt has been, and must be for some time yet, a subject of difficulty and of variety of opinion. The fixed points in Egyptian history are so few and the gaps between them so great, that it is quite impossible to establish an accurate system of chronology : approximate dates are all that can be hoped for at present. Nearly every student of Egyptian chronology arrives at conclusions different from any of his predecessors, and how widely different they are is seen from the fact that the date given for Menes by Champollion-Figeac is 5867, by Bockh 5702, by Bunsen 3623, by Lepsius 3892, by Lieblein 3893, by Mariette 5004, and by Brugsch 4400. The system of chronology by Brugsch, which is based on the calculation of three generations to a century, is generally used throughout this book.

B.C.

4400

Founding Memphis.

Dynasties I-VI.

Mena or Menes, the first historical king of Egypt, came from This near Abydos in Upper Egypt. He left This, and journeying northwards, arrived at the head of the Delta, where, having turned the Nile out of its course, he founded the city of Memphis and built the temple of Ptah.

The name Memphis, in Egyptian I A Men-nefert,

EGYPTIAN HISTORY. II

means the " fair site " ; the sacred name of the place is J ^ x - Het-Ptah-ka, and means “the temple of the genius of Ptah " ; from this name it seems that the Greek name for Egypt AcyvirTo^ is derived. The worship of the gods, the temple services, and the cult of Apis were intro- duced by Menes, who is said to have been devoured by a crocodile.

B.C.

Teta wrote a book on anatomy, and continued building 4366 at Memphis.

Ata. In the reign of this king a great famine happened. 4300

He is said to have built pyramids at Kochome near Sak- Famine in

karah, but there is no evidence that he built the famous Step syp Pyramid l there.

Hesep-ti. The 64th chapter of the Book of the Dead is 4266 said to have been found at Denderah during his reign, and Antiquity the 1 30th chapter also dates from that period. the Dead?

Mer-ba-pen. With this king’s name the Tablet of Sak- 4233 karah begins.

During the second dynasty an earthquake swallowed up a great many people at Bubastis, and the succession of females to the throne of Egypt was declared valid. Sent, the last 4000 king of this dynasty, revised a work on medicine, and he Early appears to be the first king of whom contemporaneous monu- knowledge ments remain. in EzyvL

During the rule of Nefer-ka-Seker, the first king of the Illrd dynasty, the tribes of the land to the north-west of the Delta rebelled : according to Manetho’s statement, the moon Eclipse of first grew very large and bright, and then became dark, and l e moon* the rebels were so terrified that they fled away in terror.

The monuments of the IVth dynasty are numerous, and the tombs of this period, particularly, show to what a high state of culture and civilization the Egyptians had attained. Of the first king, Seneferu, very little is known : he invaded 3766

1 The steps are six in number, and are about 38, 36, 34J, 32, 31 and 29^ feet in height ; the width of each step is from six to seven feet. The lengths of the sides at the base are : north and south, 352 feet ; east and west, 596 feet, and the actual height is 197 feet. The shape of the pyramid is oblong, and the arrange- ment of the chambers inside is peculiar to itself.

12

FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT.

Copper mines worked in Sinai.

the peninsula of Sinai, and having conquered the hostile tribes there, established copper mining at Wady Ma’arah. He dug wells, and built forts and temples there for the use of the miners and overseers, and from the remains of the working of his mines, which may be seen there to this day, it is clear that the copper industry must have been very large

at that period in Egypt. Sinai was called ^\ \s\ *u^_i

Mafkata, " the land of the bluish-green stone.” Seneferu is Pyramid of said to have built the Pyramid of Medum, called in Egyptian

Medum.

A Chd, and in Arabic El-Haram el-Kadddb, " the false

B.C.

3733

Great pyramid built and Denderah founded.

The Pyramid of Medum.

pyramid.” This pyramid is about 115 feet high, and is built in three stages ; the first is 70, the second 20, and the third about 25 feet high. It was never completed.

Chufu, or Cheops, the next king of Egypt, is more famous as the builder of the great pyramid of Gizeh than as a warrior, and little more is known of his military expeditions than that he continued the wars against the tribes of Sinai which his predecessor Seneferu had so ably begun. He appears to have built many towns, and the famous temple of Denderah is said to have been founded during his reign. As the pyramids were tombs, they will be described in the chapter relating to tombs.

EGYPTIAN HISTORY.

‘3

jv*^^^t

Statue of Chephren, King of Egypt, B.C. 3666 [Museum of Gizeh].

FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT.

B.C.

3666

The

Sphinx.

Repairs to the Sphinx.

Caviglia

excavates

Sphinx.

Chafra, or Chephren, is also more famous as the builder of the second pyramid than as a warrior, and with his name is coupled that of the Sphinx.

The age of the Sphinx is unknown, and few of the facts connected with its history have come down to these days. Some years ago it was generally believed to have been made during the rule of the kings of the Middle Empire over Egypt, but when the stele which recorded the repairs made in the temple of the sphinx by Thothrnes IV., B.C. 1533, came to light, it became certain that it was the work of one of the kings of the Ancient Empire. The stele records that one day during an after-dinner sleep, Harmachis appeared to Thothrnes IV., and promised to bestow upon him the crown of Egypt if he would dig his image, i.e., the Sphinx, out of the sand. At the end of the inscription part of the name of Cha-f-Ra or Chephren appears, and hence some have thought that this king was the maker of the Sphinx ; and as the statue of Chephren was subsequently found in the temple close by, this theory was generally adopted. An inscription found by Mariette near one of the pyramids to the east of the pyramid of Cheops shows that the Sphinx existed in the time of Chu-fu or Cheops. The Egyptians called the Sphinx hu \ J&sfi, and he represented the god Harmachis, i.e., Heru-

em-chut ^\ / rd. “Horus in the horizon,” or the rising

sun, the conqueror of darkness, the god of the morning. On the tablet erected by Thothrnes IV., Harmachis says that he gave life and dominion to Thothrnes III., and he promises to give the same good gifts to his successor Thothrnes IV. The discovery of the steps which led up to the Sphinx, a smaller Sphinx, and an open temple, etc., was made by Caviglia, who first excavated this monument ; within the last few years very extensive excavations have been made round it by the Egyptian Government, and several hitherto unseen parts of it have been brought to view. The Sphinx is hewn out of the living rock, but pieces of stone have been added where necessary; the body is about 150 feet long, the paws are 50 feet long, the head is 30 feet long, the face is 14 feet wide, and from the top of the head to the base of the monument the distance is about 70 feet. Originally there

EGYPTIAN HISTORY.

15

probably were ornaments on the head, the whole of which was covered with a limestone covering, and the face was coloured red ; of these decorations scarcely any traces now remain, though they were visible towards the end of the last century. The condition in which the monument now appears is due to the savage destruction of its features by the Muhammadan rulers of Egypt, some of whom caused it to be used for a target. Around this imposing relic of antiquity, whose origin is wrapped in mystery, a number of legends and The superstitions have clustered in all ages ; but Egyptology has sPhinx shown, I., that it was a colossal image of Ra-Harmachis, and biem of therefore of his human representative upon earth, the king ^acSr of Egypt who had it hewn, and II., that it was in existence in the time of, and was probably repaired by, Cheops and Chephren, who lived about three thousand seven hundred years before Christ.1

B.C.

Menkaura or Mykerinos is famous as the builder of the 3633 third pyramid at Gizeh. The fragments of his inner wooden coffin and a small fragment of his basalt sarcophagus are The oldest preserved in the British Museum, together with the remains j£ffin in of a human body which were found with them in the third pyramid at Gizeh. The reputation which this king left behind him is that of a good and just ruler.

The kings of the Vth like those of the IVth dynasty are famous rather as builders than as warriors. The rule of the first king, Userkaf, extended as far as Elephantine. Sahura, 3566 the second king, suppressed revolts in the Sinaitic peninsula and founded a town near Esneh. An, Heru-men-kau, 3400 and Tet-ka-Ra also made expeditions into Sinai, and caused Copper reliefs to be cut on the rocks with the usual inscriptions in worked in which they are called the conquerors of the land. In the Sinai, reign of this last named king Tet-ka-Ra or Assa was written the famous work entitled the “Precepts of Ptah-Hetep.” 3366 A single complete copy of this work, dating from the Xlth or Xllth dynasty, is extant ; it is preserved in the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris, where it was brought by Prisse.2 If all

1 Budge, The Nile, Notes for Travellers in Egypt, 2nd ed., pp. 194, 195.

2 The hieratic text has been published by Prisse, Facsimile d’un Papyrus Egyptien, Paris, 1847. The best analyses of the text are by Chabas in Revue Arch., Serie I. t. xv., p. 1 ff. and in Aegyptische Zeitschrift, June and July, 1870.

The Shekh el-Beled. From Sakkarah [Gizeh Museum, No. 492].

EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 1 7

other monuments of the great civilization of Egypt were

wanting, these " Precepts " alone would show the moral worth

of the Egyptians, and the high ideal of man’s duties which B c

they had formed nearly 5500 years ago. Of Unas, the last 3333

king of the Vth dynasty, we know little except that he built

a pyramid at Sakkarah, which was opened in 1881.

The kings of the Vlth dynasty seem to have extended their operations further south, for their names are found at El-kab, Abydos, Aswan, and elsewhere. Teta and Pepi I. 3266-3233 built each a pyramid at Sakkarah, and the rule of the latter seems to have embraced all Egypt. He renewed the Egyptian rule over the Sinaitic peninsula, and the inscriptions at Wady Ma’arah show that copper mining was carried on there during his reign as busily as ever. Among Pepi’s staff was a young man called Una, who had been a favoured The career servant of Teta ; Pepi employed him in many ways and ° a* distinguished him by entrusting the care of an expedition against the Aamu and Heru-sha, who are supposed to be Semitic and Asiatic enemies of Egypt respectively. Troops were brought from Ethiopia and led against them by Una ; the Egyptians were successful in defeating them, and having wasted their land, they returned to Egypt bringing many captives with them. To quell the tribes in revolt to the north of the Heru-sha territory it was necessary to send troops in ships. As a mark of the king’s favour Una was sent to the quarries of Turah (in Eg. <~p> J^ > r^v] Re-du) to bring back a block of stone suitable for the king’s sarco- phagus. The ability and fidelity of Una made him an acceptable officer to Merenra, the successor of Pepi I., who 3200 sent him to the quarries to bring back a block of stone for the royal sarcophagus, to Aswan and Elephantine for granite to build a shrine and to make the doors of his pyramid, and to Alabastron for a large slab of fine white limestone. Nefer- ka-Ra, or Pepi II., succeeded his brother Merenra; he built a pyramid and made an expedition to Sinai. The last ruler of the sixth dynasty, Nitaqert (Nitocris), was a queen ; she 3133 enlarged the pyramid of Mykerinos and covered it over with slabs of granite, and the remains of a fine basalt sarcophagus which were found in a chamber near that of Mykerinos seem to indicate that the queen’s body had been laid there. B. M. C

i8

FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT.

Working of the cop- per mines of Sinai.

Unknown period in Egyptian history.

B.C. 2500

Great ex- pedition to Punt.

2466

During the first six dynasties it is clear that the Egyptians were masters of the copper mine district in Sinai, that they were able to beat off the tribes on their western borders, that they defeated the two great warlike bodies of the Aamu and the Heru-sha, and that they were at peace with the Ethio- pians, upon whom they could call for assistance in time of war. As builders they were unequalled, and their art had advanced so far that they were never successfully imitated by later generations. Their religion and government were well founded, and their education was of a very high character. So far as is known there was no other nation, except the Babylonians under Naram-Sin and Sargon, which was so highly civilized at this remote period.

Dynasties VII-XI. Of the history of Egypt of this period nothing is known ; the names of the kings who reigned cannot even be arranged in accurate chronological order. Towards the end of this period a number of kings named Antef and Menthu-hetep ruled ; they appear to have been of Theban origin. Menthu- hetep, with the prenomen of Neb-taui-Ra, is styled, on a stele on the island of Konosso, the conqueror of thirteen nations, and his name appears on rocks which lie beside the old road from Coptos to the Red Sea through the valley of Hammamat. The mightiest king of this period seems to have been Seanchkara, who was able to send forth an expedition to the land of Punt, the land of the gods, the peculiar home of the god Bes A, and the land of sweet spices. The expedition set out in the eighth year of the king’s reign, under the leadership of Hennu ; it consisted of 3000 men, among whom were stone-cutters, soldiers, etc. On their road they dug four wells, and having arrived safely on the shores of the Red Sea, they took ship and sailed probably for the southern part of the Arabian peninsula. The expedi- tion returned successfully, bearing with it great quantities of spices, precious stones, and other products of the East.

XIIth Dynasty.

The kings of this dynasty, like the Antefs and Menthu- heteps, were of Theban origin, and under their rule Egypt

EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 19

comes forth into the light of day as a mighty power. As they were able to defend their country from the assaults of their hereditary foes in Ethiopia, and from the tribes on their eastern and western borders, the arts and sciences flourished, and large works connected with the storage of Nile water were undertaken. The period of their rule, following as it did absolute anarchy, is one of the most interesting in the history of Egypt ; and Thebes, which hitherto had not been Thebes the seat of government, became the chief city of the Egyptian caST/of empire. Egypt-

Amenemhat I. made himself master of Egypt after very b.c. hard fighting, and during his rule of twenty-nine years he 24 defeated the Uauat, an Ethiopian tribe, the Matui, a people who lived in the desert to the west of Egypt, and the Asiatics. He wrote a series of " Instructions " for his son Usertsen, whom he seems to have associated with him in the rule of the kingdom during the last ten years of his life. Conspiracies were formed against him, and he relates that his foes crept into his chamber at night to kill him. Amenemhat I. is famous as the founder of the temple of Amen-Ra, " the king of the gods,” at Thebes, but although he beautified Thebes by this temple, he did not forget to establish another at Memphis, and at the other venerable cities of his kingdom. He followed the custom of the kings of the earlier dynasties and built a pyramid for his tomb. During his reign the story of Senehet was written. For an account of this remarkable papyrus see the article by Goodwin in Fraser’s Magazine, No. 422, 1865, and for a translation see Records of the Past, 1st ed., Vol. VI., pp. 1 31-150. The original is preserved in Berlin, and a facsimile was published by Lepsius, Denkmaler, Abth. VI., Bl. 104 fT.

Usertsen I. is famous as being the king who set up 2433 obelisks at Heliopolis and who beautified that city by Rise of building splendid temples there. These works were under- ^eiio* oli taken by him after taking counsel with his chief advisers, and in the record * of the proceedings of the solemn assembly at which this took place, Usertsen’s orders for the prompt

1 The leather roll giving this interesting text was purchased by Brugsch irv 1858, and is now preserved at Berlin.

C 2

20

FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT.

The entrance to the tombs at Beni-Hasan. XHth dynasty.

EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 21

building of temples to the sun are preserved. Fragments of an obelisk set up by this king still exist near the modern town of Begig in the Fayyum, and portions of inscriptions remain at Karnak, which show that he continued the building operations which his father began there. In the forty-third year of his reign Ameni Amenemhat, a high official, set out for Ethiopia with four hundred soldiers to quell a rebellion which had broken out there. This expedition was perfectly successful, and having smitten all the tribes of Kash without losing a man, returned to the leader’s city in the no/ne of Meh, near Beni-hasan of to-day, bringing much gold with Tombs at them. Ameni Amenemhat was one of the feudal lords of ®Qn}~

hasan.

Egypt, and he led this expedition in the place of his father, who was too old to go on military service. Another high official called Mentu-hetep built a well at Abydos, of which, however, no trace has been found. Like so many of the kings who went before him, Usertsen caused the mines in the Sinaitic peninsula to be regularly worked.

Amenemhat II. sent men to Nubia to dig for gold, and 2400 he opened the mines in the valley of Hammamat; he appears to have lived some time at Tanis and to have had building operations carried on there like Usertsen I. In the nineteenth year of this king’s reign Chnemu-hetep became governor of Menat-Chufu, near Beni-hasan, an office held before by his father and grandfather. In the thirty-third year of Amen- emhat’s reign he associated his successor Usertsen II. with him in the rule of the kingdom.

In the sixth year of Usertsen II. thirty-seven people 2366

belonging to a branch of the Semitic race called Aamu, in

the country of Absha, brought a gift of eye-paint to

Chnemu-hetep, in whose tomb this interesting scene is

depicted. Some writers have seen in this a representation of

the visit of Jacob’s sons to Egypt to buy corn, but there is no Visi of

ground whatever for this opinion. Of the wars of this king- Semi1tlc

. ^ peoples to

nothing is known, and of his buildings only one mention is Egypt.

made, and that is on a slab in the temple of Ptah at Memphis.

With the coming to the throne of Usertsen III. a new 2333 period of prosperity began for Egypt. He recognized very- soon that the tribes of Nubia had to be put down with a

22

FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT.

Egyptians

conquer

Nubia.

Fgyptian fortresses in Nubia.

B.C. 2300

Ancient irrigation works in Egypt.

The Fayyftm.

Building of the Labyrinth.

strong hand, and he marched into that country, and did not leave it until he had wasted the land, destroyed the crops and carried off the cattle. In the labours of Usertsen III. to suppress these peoples we have the counterpart of the expeditions of the English against the Mahdi and his Sudani followers. He foresaw that it was hopeless to expect to master these people if the frontier town of Egypt was Aswan or Wady Halfah, hence he went further south and built fortresses at Semneh and Kummeh. In spite of these, how- ever, he himself was compelled to lead an expedition into Ethiopia in the nineteenth year of his reign, and having conquered the country he built a temple at Elephantine to the local gods and probably another at Amada. In Egypt proper he seems to have carried on building operations at Tanis and Heracleopolis.

In Amenemhat III. we have the first Egyptian king who seriously set to work to make the fullest possible use of the inundation of the Nile. At the fortresses which his prede- cessor Usertsen III. had established, he stationed officers to record and report the increase of the Nile, and “runners” must have conveyed the information to the king in Egypt. Amenemhat III. will, however, be best remembered as the builder of Lake Moeris in the Fayyum. The Egyptians called the Fayyum ^^=f ^g Ta-she, " the land of the lake " ; the name Fayyum is the Arabic form of the Coptic word 4>loJUL “the water,” which in turn is taken from

/WWVA

/www

A/WW\

The Egyptian original of the name

Moeris is ~wws

mu-ury or

^*

AWWVA /-AW/\A

mer-ury " great

water." The Birket el-Kurun to the west of the Fayyum was originally identified with Lake Moeris, but both it and the famous Labyrinth were situated in the eastern part of the district. The Labyrinth was also built by Amenemhat III., and is said by Herodotus (ii. 148) to have contained twelve courts, six facing the north, and six the south, and three thousand rooms: fifteen hundred above ground, and fifteen hundred below. In Egyptian it was called the “temple at the mouth of the Lake " <=> ’ ’ I * q ^w^. and the stone

EGYPTIAN HISTORY.

23

for building it seems to have been brought from the Valley of Hammamat. The copper mines in the mountains of Sinai were diligently worked during this reign.

Amenemhat IV. reigned conjointly with his sister Sebek- 2266 neferu, and beyond continuing the mining operations of his ancestors he seems to have done nothing. We may see in collecting the results of the rule of the Xllth dynasty over Power of Egypt, that its kings had extended their sway about 250 S^Vri miles south of the first cataract, and that they had lost dynasty, nothing of their possessions either in the eastern desert or in the Sinaitic peninsula. Mighty public works like the Laby- rinth and Lake Moeris had been successfully carried out, an active trade was carried on with the natives of Punt, and with the country to-day called Syria, and with the districts further east. Agriculture flourished, and the whole land was in a most prosperous condition. And if the living were well cared for, the dead were no less so. The tombs built for high Beauty of officials and gentlemen attest the care of the sorrowing f^Ttia? relatives, while the sculptures and paintings employed to Xllth adorn them indicate that the artistic knowledge of the ynas y’ Egyptians had arrived at a very high pitch.

Dynasties XIII-XVII. According to Manetho these dynasties were as follows : — Dynasty XIII, from Thebes, 60 kings in 453 years The

„ xiv, „ chois, 7e „ „ 484 „ ?^™«

„ XV, Hyksos, 6 „ „ 260 „ Kings.”

„ XVI, Hyksos, 10 „ „ 251 „

„ XVII, from Thebes, 10 „ „ 10 „

There are no monuments by which these figures can be checked, and there is no other authority for them besides Manetho. The Turin papyrus gives traces of 136 names for the period corresponding to that of the XII Ith and XlVth dynasties. Among the rulers of the XI I Ith and XlVth dynasties were many who were not of royal descent. Se- mench-ka is known to us by his statues found at Tanis, and according to Mariette he seems to have been an officer who rebelled and then seated himself on the throne. Sebek-

24 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT.

hetep II. was the son of a private individual, and Nefer- hetep’s parents appear not to have been royal. This latter king built largely at Abydos, and as a worshipper of the local gods he is represented at Konosso and the islands of the first cataract. Of Sebek-hetep III., brother of Sebek- hetep IL, Sebek-hetep IV., and Sebek-hetep V. little is known ; of Sebek-hetep VI. the best memorials are the rock tombs at Asyut. The names of many kings belonging to this period are known from the monuments, but a greater knowledge of the history of that time is necessary for arranging them in chronological order. It seems pretty certain that few of the kings reigned many years, and that the country was divided into a number of little states which were always at war with each other, and against whomsoever was king. Such a condition of things was, of course, highly favourable for a foreign invader, who would naturally be attracted by reports of the wealth of Egypt. The hardy tribes of desert dwellers, Semites and others, who crowded on the eastern and western borders of Egypt, delayed not to take advantage of the distracted and divided state of the Attacks of country, and making a successful attack on the north-east

the Semites provinces of the Delta, they pressed in, and having taken upon the r . _ _ , , . . . ^ «,, " .

Delta. possession of Memphis, became masters of Egypt. Their

attack would probably be rendered less difficult by the fact

that a great many of the inhabitants of the Delta were of

Semitic origin, their ancestors having settled there in the

Xllth dynasty, and their opposition to their kinsmen would

be, in consequence, less stubborn. The sole authority for the

Manetho history of this invasion is Josephus, who, quoting Manetho,

“Hthk " says> " There was a king of ours, whose name was Timaus.

Under him it came to pass, I know not how, that God was

averse to us, and there came, after a surprising manner, men

of ignoble birth out of the eastern parts, and had boldness

enough to make an expedition into our country, and with

ease subdued it by force, yet without our hazarding a battle

with them. So when they had gotten those that governed us

under their power, they afterwards burnt down our cities, and

demolished the temples of the gods, and used all the

inhabitants after a most barbarous manner : nay, some they

EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 25

slew, and led their children and their wives into slavery. At length they made one of themselves king, whose name was Salatis ; he also lived at Memphis, and made both the upper and lower regions pay tribute, and left garrisons in places that were the most proper for them. He chiefly aimed to secure the eastern parts, as foreseeing thai the Assyrians, who “Hyksos” had there the greatest power, would be desirous of that king- ings# dom and invade them ; and as he found in the Saite [Seth- roite] Nomos a city very proper for his purpose, and which lay upon the Bubastic channel, but with regard to a certain theologic notion was called Avaris, this he rebuilt, and made very strong by the walls he built about it, and by a most numerous garrison of two hundred and forty thousand armed men whom he put into it to keep it. Thither Salatis came in summer time, partly to gather his corn and pay his soldiers their wages, and partly to exercise his armed men, and thereby to terrify foreigners. When this man had reigned thirteen years, after him reigned another whose name was Beon for forty-four years ; after him reigned another, called Apachnas, thirty-six years and seven months : after him Apophis reigned sixty-one years, and then Jonias fifty years and one month; after all these reigned Assis forty-nine years and two months.

" And these six were the first rulers among them, who were Manetho all along making war with the Egyptians, and were very J|eriva\

ion

desirous gradually to destroy them to the very roots. This of whole nation was styled Hycsos, that is, ’ Shepherd-kings ’ ; y s° for the first syllable Hyc, according to the sacred dialect, denotes a king, as is SOS, a shepherd — but this according to the ordinary dialect ; and of these is compounded HYCSOS : but some say that these people were Arabians.” Now, in another copy it is said, that this word does not denote kings, but on the contrary, denotes Captive Shepherds, and this on account of the particle Hyc ; for that Hyc, with the aspiration, in the Egyptian tongue again denotes Shepherds, and that ex- pressly also ; and this to me seems the more probable opinion, and more agreeable to ancient history. [But Manetho goes on] : — " These people whom we have before named kings, and called shepherds also, and their descendants,"

26 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT.

as he says, “kept possession of Egypt five hundred and eleven years.” l On the whole it seems that these observations of Manetho are correct. Of Salatis, the first Hyksos king, nothing is known historically, and there are no monuments known which can correctly be asserted to be the work of the kings of the first Hyksos dynasty. The country from which The the Hyksos came, also, is unknown. Some Egyptologists

Kings. “Cr consider the Hyksos to be Cushites, and some think they are to be identified with the Accadians ; others, again, believe them to be Phoenicians or Semites. The features of the statues that have come down to us which are attributed to the Hyksos, have the following characteristics : The eyes are comparatively small, the nose is broad but aquiline, the cheek bones are prominent and the cheeks thick, the mouth is broad, the lips thick, and the chin protrudes slightly. From these facts some have stated decidedly that the Hyksos cannot have been Semites, but it must be proved that the monuments attributed to the Hyksos were really made by them, before this question can be considered to be definitively disposed of. Of the two meanings of the name Hyksos put forth by Josephus, the first being Manetho’s explanation, and the second that of Josephus, based on another copy of Manetho’s work seen by him, the former seems to be the more correct, and we may perhaps give the Egyptian

KL ?$!H»I%JP JL$! Hequ-shadsu, as an equivalent of

phic equiv- j ^J | <’ T ‘■ j^. ^ | ^r^y\ y*\

“Hyksos.” lt The Shaasu are a well known enemy of Egypt, who came from the deserts east and north-east of Egypt, and " Hequ-shaasu " or " princes of the Shaasu " would be a name such as we might expect the Egyptians to bestow upon the invaders, just as they spoke of Heq Cheta, " Prince of Cheta.” The kings belonging to this period, made known to us by the Egyptian monuments, are Apepa I., Apepa II. , and Nubti. Of Apepa I. very little is known, but of Apepa II. a number of monuments remain, and among others one which records the submission to him of a number of Ethiopian tribes. Bar-Hebraeus relates that there " reigned in Egypt the fourth king of the Shepherds called Apapus, fourteen years.

1 Josephus, Contra Apion. i. 14, translated by Whiston, p. 610.

EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 27

It was this king who dreamed dreams, and who made Joseph Joseph in ruler — according to the writings of Chaldeans — and it Egypt seems that these kings were called " Shepherd Kings " because of Joseph’s brethren." * It is known from a granite stele 2 found at Tanis, a city formerly inhabited by the Apepa kings, that the four hundredth year from the reign of Nubti fell in the reign of Rameses II. Dr. Birch,3 Wiedemann4 and other Egyptologists, compare this period of 400 years with the 430 years of the bondage of Israel in Egypt, and, as Israel in the Exodus probably took place during the reign of the E£>Pl- immediate successor of Rameses II., we may assume that the statement of Bar-Hebraeus was based on some trustworthy tradition. It has also been pertinently remarked that it would be easier for Joseph to hold high office under the Shepherd Joseph and kings than under the rule of an ancient hereditary aristocracy. jI^(j<Shep The Shepherd kings worshipped a god called Sut or Sutech, Kings." who was to the Egyptians a veritable abomination. They lived in the cities of Tanis and Avaris, on the east side of the Pelusiac arm of the Nile. They adopted the manners and customs and writing of the Egyptians, and whatever may have been their severity when they first began to rule, they were of great service to the Egyptians. It is doubtful, however, how far south their rule extended. The names of a number of kings whom Wiedemann attributes to this period are to be found in his Geschichte, pp. 295-297.

The kings of the XVIIth dynasty were of Theban origin, The k- and are famous as those who defeated the Shepherd kings and of Thebes

cxocl the

expelled them. According to Manetho, “under a king whose Hyksos. name was Alisphragmuthosis, the shepherds were subdued by him, and were indeed driven out of other parts of Egypt,

flDQ£i£)l Uoi’i? U^»1? OOl te^O ^)JXl£i fad jA^O 1

asoo 1 \ oi4^l° )&&* ±a^+> ^iOioAjiI ]joi . lymisil 1‘i* k£i£oa*j wiOioiil ^k>? U^?o *l»i«^t ]Aai£Ank> yJ\

1 Ed. Bruns, p. 14, at the top ; ed. Bedjan, p. 13, at the top.

2 An English translation is given by Birch in Records of the Past, V., p. 33 ff.

3 Egypt, p. 76. 4 Aeg. Geschichte, p. 294.

28

FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT.

Retreat of

the

“Hyksos.”

Seqenen- Ra III.

but were shut up in a place that contained ten thousand acres : this place was named Avaris.” Manetho says that " the Shepherds built a wall round all this place, which was a large and strong wall, and this in order to keep all their possessions and their prey within a place of strength, but that Thummosis the son of Alisphragmuthosis made an attempt to take them by force and by siege with 480,000 men to lie round about them ; but that, upon his despair of taking the place by that siege, they came to a composition with them, that they should leave Egypt, and go without any harm to be done them, whithersoever they would ; and that, after this composition was made, they went away with their whole families and effects, not fewer in number than 240,000, and took their journey from Egypt, through the wilderness, for Syria : but that, as they were in fear of the Assyrians, who had then the dominion over Asia, they built a city in that country which is now called Judea, and that large enough to contain this great number of men, and called it Jerusalem." l Of more value than this account of Josephus for the expulsion of the Shepherd kings, is the mutilated papyrus2 in the British Museum which treats of Apepa and the native Theban king Tau-aa-qen or Seqenen-Ra III. According to it, Egypt belonged to her foes and had no king, although Seqenen-Ra, who is described as a heq or prince, was master of a town in the south. Apepa received tribute from all parts of the Delta, and part of it he devoted to building temples to his god Set. He wished all Egypt, both south and north, to worship this god, and to pay tribute to himself, and he sent a messenger from Avaris to Thebes requiring Seqenen-Ra to worship Set alone. This king returned answer saying that he could worship no god but Amen-Ra. Some time after another messenger of Apepa arrived with threats, which caused Seqenen-Ra much trouble, and he gathered together his generals and councillors to decide upon a plan of action. What the decision was the mutilated state of the papyrus prevents us from knowing, but there is no doubt about the ultimate result of their deliberations. One of the officers of

1 Contra Apion. I. 14, Whiston’s translation, p. 61:

2 For the text see Select Papyri, ed. Birch, pi. 2.

general.

EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 29

Seqenen-Ra was called Baba, the son of Re-ant, and he had a son called Aahmes who was born in the city of Eileithyia. Aahmes This Aahmes became an officer on board a ship of war called ^ the " North," and in the inscription on the walls of his tomb it is said that he went with the king to besiege the city of Avaris. He was next promoted to a ship called Cha-em- Mennefer, and he took part in the battle fought upon the canal of Pat’etku of Avaris. Here he performed mighty deeds of valour, and he distinctly says, " We took Avaris, and I carried off as captives from thence one man and three women, in all four heads.“1 The war of independence begun Egyptians by Seqenen-Ra III., was brought to a successful issue by Hyksos ? Aahmes or Amasis I., and Egypt was delivered. Seqenen-Ra probably lost his life in battle with the enemy, and must in any case have been seriously wounded, judging by the smashed skull and broken bones which his mummy exhibits.

Dynasty XVIII.

B.C.

Aahmes I., son of Ka-mes and his wife Aah-hetep, was 1700 the first king of the XVIIIth dynasty, and the first native ruler of all Egypt for a period of about five hundred years. Having captured Avaris, Amasis marched into Asia, where he captured the town of Sharhana, the ]^^^ of Joshua xix. 6, and made himself master of the land of T’ahi. Returning Egyptian to Egypt he marched into Nubia and defeated several tribes conquests

oy r in Asia and

who had rebelled systematically for many years past. Nubia. Having made the borders of his country safe from invasion, Amasis began to build at Memphis and Thebes and other places. Thebes, the home of the kings who had expelled the Hyksos, became the first town in Egypt, and Amen-Ra, who hitherto had enjoyed the reputation of a mere local god, became the head of Egyptian deities. Amenophis I., son of 1666 Amasis I., marched into Nubia, and brought it into subjection to him, and in the north of Egypt he defeated a people called the Aamu-kehak. In the reign of this king the horse is first represented on the monuments.

1 Records of the Past, VI. p. 8,

30 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT.

B.C.

*633 Thothmes I., like his father Amenophis I., marched into

Nubia x and defeated the rebel tribes ; he made the people

slaves and carried off much spoil to Thebes. Soon after his

return to Thebes he set out with his army on an expedition

to Mesopotamia, passing through the Arabian desert and

Palestine by the way, and finally arrived on the banks of the

Euphrates and Tigris. This expedition was the last in which

the officer Aahmes took part, and he again distinguished

himself by his personal bravery as on former occasions. To

Limits of commemorate this expedition Thothmes I. set up two stelae

temtorTin near tne Euphrates to mark the limits of Egyptian territory.

Asia. It would seem that no Egyptian king ever possessed per-

manent hold upon the country of Mesopotamia, m ^wm Nehern (compare vJoiJ A. A or ]2o*oiJ A»A ), and it is clear that Egypt only held even a nominal dominion over it as long as each king on his accession marched into the country to terrify the nomad tribes afresh, and to decide what amount of tribute each petty king or head of a tribe should pay to Egypt. The governors of cities in Mesopotamia and Ruthen, or Syria, made treaties among themselves and planned wars against each other, or a common foe, without any reference to the authority of Egypt over them. Each king of Assyria, if he wished to maintain his authority, found it necessary on his accession, or soon after, to undertake a series of military expeditions to punish the peoples who, on the death of a king, always revolted. If this were necessary for a power actually resident in Mesopotamia, how much more necessary would it be for a remote and shadowy power like that of Egypt. Thothmes I. continued the buildings at Thebes, and set up two granite obelisks. Towards the end of his reign he associated his daughter Maat-ka-Ra, or Hat-shepset, with him in the rule of the kingdom. 1600 Thothmes II. married his sister Hatshepset and became

king of Egypt. The tribes of Nubia were again re-conquered, and the Shaasu were once more defeated. After a short reign, the greater part of which was occupied in continuing the buildings at Karnak, the king died and Hatshepset his sister-

1 The office of “Prince of Cush” is first mentioned in the reign of Thothmes I.

EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 3 1

wife reigned in his stead. This queen was one of the most capable women who ever reigned in Egypt ; she is famous as the builder x of the beautiful temple at Der el-Bahari, and Hatshepset for the remarkable expedition to Punt planned by her and e”]Bahari?r carried out in the ninth year of her reign. Ships were made- ready and sailors collected ; a multitude of gifts were stowed in each ship, and the necessary guard of soldiers for each told off; a number of Egyptian ladies and high officials prepared Expedition to accompany the expedition, and the direction of the whole was put into the hands of the queen’s most beloved servant. The inhabitants of Punt received the expedition in a very friendly manner, and having loaded the servants of Hat- shepset with rich gifts of gold, ivory, balsam, precious stones, plants, trees, ebony, apes, greyhounds, etc., etc., sent them back to Egypt. When these things had been safely brought back to Thebes, Hatshepset received them with joy, and dedicated the greater part of them as an offering to her father Amen-Ra. In the sixteenth year of her reign Thothmes III. became associated with her in her rule over Egypt. At Karnak she set up two magnificent granite Obelisks obelisks in memory of her father Thothmes I. According to a arna ’ an inscription on the base of the one still standing, the granite for it was hewn out of the quarry in Aswan, and was brought to Thebes, and was polished and inscribed and set up within seven months. The height of this obelisk is 105 feet, and if the weight be taken into consideration, and the difficult site, among a crowd of buildings, upon which it was to be set up, it will be easy to judge of the resources and skill of the Egyptian architect and mason of that period. Of the end of Hatshepset nothing is known. During her lifetime she wore male attire, and put on the robes and ornaments which belonged to kings only. In the inscriptions she is always described as king “of the North and South, Maat-ka-Ra, son of the Sun, Hatshepset,” and the verbs and pronouns relating to her are masculine. After her death her brother Thothmes III. caused as many traces of her rule as possible to disappear.

1 The statue of her architect Sen-mut is preserved at Berlin.

32 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT.

Thothmes III. was one of the mightiest kings who occupied the throne of Egypt, and during his long reign of fifty-three years 1 he carried the arms of Egypt to the utter- most parts of the world as known to the Egyptians, and showed himself to be a wise and great king. While Hat- shepset was amusing herself with her expedition to Punt and the building of her temple at Der el-Bahari, the desert tribes on her eastern and western borders were making prepara- tions ready to revolt, and they showed their contempt for the authority of Egypt by refusing to pay tribute. The Meso- potamians, over whom the power of Egypt must ever have been of a shadowy nature, boldly declared themselves free, and their neighbours and kinsmen living in Syria and in the districts to the north and north-east of Damascus followed Conquest their example. The conquests made by Amasis I. and Askbyern Amenhetep I. were all forgotten, and Thothmes III. had Thothmes practically to reconquer the world. In his twenty-second year he set out from Tanis, and passing through the desert of Sinai he marched to Gaza, a city which had remained faithful to his authority. A few days later he set out for Megiddo, which he found to be occupied by the governor of Kadesh, who had made a league with all the tribes living between the Mediterranean and Nineveh. Sixteen days after Thothmes left Gaza he engaged the enemy, who seeing that the Egyptian king himself was fighting against them, lost all heart, and leaping down from their chariots, decorated with gold and silver, fled to Megiddo, throwing away their arms as they went. As the gates of this town had been shut by those inside, the fugitives had to be pulled up over the walls. The number of the enemy slain by the Egyptians was Fall of enormous, and Megiddo was taken with little difficulty. The Megiddo. ^jgfg 0f the allied peoples seeing that their league was destroyed, and that Megiddo was in the hands of the enemy, immediately brought offerings of gold, precious stones, horses, corn, oxen, etc., etc., and submitted to Thothmes. The news of the defeat of the league reached the remote parts of Meso- potamia, and their governors, in due time, also sent gifts of

1 This number includes the years which he reigned conjointly with his sister; he reigned alone thirty-one years.

EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 33

propitiation to the king. The names of the places conquered Defeat of by Thothmes were inscribed by his orders on some of the league"*" pylons at Karnak ; of the 360 places there mentioned, com- paratively few can be identified with Biblical sites with any certainty. For the next few years the Retennu or Syrians and the Babylonians brought their appointed tribute regularly, and to make the relations between himself and the former nation of an amicable character, Thothmes married a princess of their country. In the twenty-ninth and thirtieth years of his reign he marched again to Syria and captured Tunep, Aradus, Carchemish and Kadesh on the Orontes. The remaining years of his life he employed in making expeditions against the Retennu and the Mesopotamians, into whose country he marched as far as Nl. The tribes of Ethiopia and Sinai sent him valuable gifts, which are duly enumerated in the inscriptions containing the annals of this king. A good idea of the different objects of the tribute sent from the various countries may be obtained from the paintings on the tomb of Rech-ma-Ra at Thebes, where we see depicted horses and chariots, collars of gold, vases weighing 2,821 pounds of gold, tables of cedar, plants, ivory, ebony, corn, cattle, copper, lapis-lazuli, silver, iron, wine, etc., etc. On the south the Egyptian empire reached to the southern confines of Nubia, on the north-east to Lake Van, on the east to the Tigris, and on the west to the great desert on the left bank of the Nile. Notwithstanding the warlike activity of Thothmes III., he was able to carry on great buildings at Heliopolis, Memphis, Thebes, Elephantine and nearly every town in Nubia. Four of the obelisks set up by Thothmes have come down to us : one is now near the Lateran at Rome, one at Constantinople, one in London, and one in New York.

B.C.

Amen-hetep II. had been associated with Thothmes III. 1566 in the rule of the kingdom, and immediately he began to reign alone he found himself plunged in wars with the tributary peoples, who on the death of Thothmes III. declared themselves free. He marched into Mesopotamia Conquest and captured Nl and Akati; he made war on the Shaasu and Asia^™ the Nubians, and defeated both peoples.

Thothmes IV. maintained the authority of Egypt from 1533 B. M. D

34

FUNEREAL ARCH/EOLOGY OF EGYPT.

The

Sphinx repaired.

B.C.

1500

Conquest of Nubia and West- ern Asia.

Serapeum

at

Sakkarah.

The

Colossi.

Mesopotamia to the borders of Nubia, but he is better known as the repairer of the Sphinx at Gizeh. In the first year of his reign he removed the sand which had covered up the monument, in consequence of an after-dinner sleep in which Harmachis appeared to him and promised to bestow upon him the crown of Egypt if he would dig his image, i.e., the Sphinx, out of the sand. Thothmes set up between the paws of the Sphinx a tablet about fourteen feet high, in which he inscribed an account of this vision and a statement of the works which he carried out at Heliopolis and Memphis.

In Amen-hetep III., or Amenophis, the Memnon of the Greeks, the successor of Thothmes IV., Egypt gained a king having some of the ability and energy of Thothmes III. In the fifth year of his reign he marched into Nubia to quell a mighty rebellion which had broken out against the Egyptian rule among a number of confederate tribes. He also held the Mesopotamians in subjection, for we learn from large scarabs inscribed during his reign that his empire extended from Neherna, or Mesopotamia, to Karei, or the land south of Nubia. From these same scarabs we learn that Amenophis was a “mighty hunter,” and that during the first ten years of his reign he slew 102 lions .with his own hand. He built the oldest part of the Serapeum at Sakkarah, a temple to Amen-Ra at Karnak, a larger temple to the same god at Luxor, with an avenue of Sphinxes leading to it, and the temple of Mut to the south of Karnak. On the western bank of the river he built a large temple, the dedication of which was described on a stele found behind the Colossi, which also were set up by this king. These wonderful statues were about 60 feet high, and from that on the north, called the Colossus of Memnon, a sound was said to issue each morning when the sun rose. The upper part of it was thrown down by an earthquake, it is said, about B.C. 27; the damage was partially repaired during the reign of Septimius Severus, about A.D. 160 who restored the head and shoulders of the figure by adding to it five layers of stone ; but after that Memnon’s Colossus spake no more. At El-Kab, Aswan, and Soleb Amenophis III. also built temples. Four important events in the life and reign of this king are recorded by large steatite scarabs. The

EGYPTIAN HISTORY.

35

The Colossi set up in honour of Amenophis III. Thebes.

D 2

36

FUNEREAL ARCH/EOLOGY OF EGYPT.

Historical scarabs of Ameno- phis III.

The Tell

el-Amarna

tablets.

Marriage with Thi.

B.C.

1466

Heresy of the disk worship- pers.

first records his lion hunts ; the second the coming of Thi, the daughter of an Asiatic father, to Egypt, accompanied by 317 of her women ; the third the marriage of Amenophis and Thi, and the fourth the building of a large lake 3,600 cubits long by 600 cubits wide for his queen near the town of T’arucha, which the king opened on the 16th of Choiak in the eleventh year of his reign, by sailing across it in his barge called Aten- neferu. The tablets inscribed in cuneiform recently found at Tell el-Amarna prove that Amenophis III. married a sister and daughter of Kallimma-Sin, king of Karaduniyash, a country probably lying to the north-east of Syria; Gilukhipa the sister of Tushratta, king of Mitani, and Satumkhipa daughter of Tushratta; and Thi the daughter of parents who were not royal. The country of Mitani also lay to the north- east of Syria, and we know that like Tiglath-Pileser I., king of Assyria, about B.C. 1120, Amenophis III. went thither frequently to hunt lions.1 The kings and governors of places as remote as Babylon promptly claimed the friendship of their new kinsman, and their letters expressing their willingness to make alliances offensive and defensive, are some of the most interesting objects of the " find " at Tell el-Amarna.

Of Amen-hetep IV., or Chu-en-aten, the son of Amen- hetep III. and the Mesopotamian lady Thi, very little is known ; he built a temple at Heliopolis, another at Memphis, one at Thebes, and some in Nubia. He is famous, however, as the leader of the heresy of the " disk worshippers," that is to say of those people who worshipped the disk of the sun,

Aten (1 ~£^ in preference to Amen-Ra, the national god of

Egypt. He showed how much he detested the god Amen, by setting aside his name Amen-hetep and adopting that of Chu-en-aten, " the brilliance of the disk." The worship of the disk was of some antiquity, and seems to have been a mono- theistic worship of Ra which originated in Heliopolis. Amenophis III. seems to have encouraged this form of religion somewhat, and it is certain that he named his barge Aten-neferu, " the most beautiful disk." The native Egyptian

1 See The Tell el-Amarna tablets in the British Museum, by Bezold and Budge, p. xviii.

EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 37

priesthood disliked the foreign queen, and the sight of her Ameno- son with his protruding chin, thick lips, and other charac- ql^reTs teristics of a foreign race, found no favour in their eyes ; that wi.th the such a man should openly despise the worship of Amen-Ra was a thing intolerable to them. In answer to their angry words and acts, the king ordered the name of Amen-Ra to be chiselled out of all the monuments, even from his father’s name. Rebellion then broke out, and Chu-en-aten left Thebes and founded a new city for himself at a place between Memphis and Thebes, now called Tell el-Amarna. After a few Founding years the queen Thi came to live there, and there Chu-en-aten TelTd-^ passed the rest of his life with his wife and seven daughters. Amarna. In the twelfth year of his reign he celebrated his victories over the Syrians and Ethiopians, but it is doubtful if they were of any importance.

After the death of Amenophis IV. there is some confusion in Egyptian history ; the immediate successors of the " heretic The king " were Se-aa-ka-Ra, Tut-anch-Amen, Ai, of whom but j.’^6110" little is known. The last king of the XVIIIth dynasty was Heru-em-heb, the Horus of Manetho, who seems to have been a native of Het-suten, the Alabastronpolis of the Greeks, or Tell el-Amarna. He made an expedition into Nubia and the lands to the south of that country, and he carried on buildings at various places, and restored temples at Heliopolis, Memphis, Thebes and elsewhere.

The Nineteenth Dynasty.

B.C.

Of the events which led to Rameses I. becoming sole 1400 king of Egypt nothing whatever is known. Some suppose that he was connected with Horus, the last king of the XVIIIth dynasty, but there are no proofs which can be brought forward in support of this theory. He seems to have carried on some small war with the people of Nubia, and to have been concerned in a treaty with the Cheta ; he also built War with a little at Thebes. He is famous, however, as the father of Seti I., and grandfather of Rameses II. ; the former was probably associated with him in the rule of the kingdom, but how long it is not possible to say.

While Amenophis IV. was quarrelling with the priests of

?.c.

EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 39

Amen about the worship of the disk, and during the rule of

his feeble successors, the peoples of Nubia and the Shaasu

and the nations of Syria and Mesopotamia became more and

more independent, and as a result ceased to fear the arms of

Egypt, and consequently declined to pay the tribute imposed

upon them by the mighty Thothmes III. and Amenophis III.

Under the rule of Rameses I. the Egyptians were forced to

sign a treaty which fixed the limits of their country and those

of the Cheta ; hence when Seti I. ascended the throne he 1366

found it necessary to make war against nearly every nation

that had formerly been subject to the Egyptians. From the

reliefs sculptured on the walls of the temple of Amen-Ra at

Karnak we see that he attacked the people who lived north

of Palestine, the Retennu or Syrians, the Shaasu, the Cheta,

and in returning to Egypt passed through the land of

Limanen. At the city of Chetam, on the frontier of Egypt,

he was received by the priests and nobles of Egypt, who said

to him : " Thou hast returned from the lands which thou hast

conquered, and thou hast triumphed over thy enemies. May

thy life be as long as that of the sun in heaven 1 Thou hast

washed thy heart on the barbarians, Ra has defined thy

boundaries." Seti then sailed up to Thebes, where he

presented his captives and booty to the gods in the temples

there. From the lists of vanquished peoples inscribed by Conquests

Seti it is found that his rule extended over Mesopotamia, As^estern

Punt or Somali land, Nubia, and the lands on the west bank

of the Nile. Cities like Kadesh on the Orontes, Tyre, Reseph,

Migdol, etc., he not only conquered, but also built fortresses in

them. During the reign of Seti the Cheta who, without,

in my opinion, the slightest evidence for the theory, have been

identified with the Hittites of the Bible, reappear in history.

Seti set up an obelisk at Kantarah, “the bridge” uniting Asia

and Africa, he built at Heliopolis, Memphis and Abydos, and

at Karnak he began several buildings, some of which were

finished by Rameses II. His name is often found in Nubia

on rocks and stelae, and he worked the gold mines there, and

sank wells in the rock to obtain water for his workmen. Seti

associated his son Rameses II. with him in the rule of the

kingdom when he was but twelve years old. According to the

40

FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT.

B.C.

1333

Sesostris.

Pentaurt’s poem on the defeat of the Cheta.

The Cheta kings.

monuments Seti reigned about twenty-seven years. The name Seti is connected with the god Set, who though at one time worshipped by the Egyptians, was subsequently consi- dered to be the father of all evil ; in several places it is seen that his name has been carefully chiselled out.

Rameses II., the Sesostris of the Greeks, was perhaps the greatest king that ever ruled over Egypt. He was a man of commanding stature, of great physical strength and personal bravery, a great builder and a liberal patron of the science and art of his days. Around his name has gathered a multitude of legends, and the exploits of other warriors and heroes who reigned hundreds of years after him have been attributed to him. Before he came to the throne he led an expedition into Nubia and defeated the peoples there ; and he brought back to Egypt much spoil, consisting of lions, gazelles, panthers, ebony, ivory, gold, etc., etc. In the fifth year of his reign he set out on a campaign against the Cheta, which was the most important event in his life ; his victory over this foe was considered so great a triumph that an account of it illustrated by sculptures was inscribed upon the temples of Thebes, Kalabshi and Abu Simbel, and a poetic description of the battle with a vivid outline of the king’s own prowess was written down by Pen-ta-urt, a temple scribe. The Cheta were a confederation of peoples, nomad and stationary, who first appear in the time of Thothmes III., to whom they paid tribute. In the time of Rameses I. they made a treaty of friendship with the Egyptians, but in the time of Seti I. they fought with them. The kings of the Cheta at this period were Sapalel and his son Maru-sar ; the latter had two sons Mautenure and Cheta-sar. Mau- tenure was king of the Cheta when Rameses II. marched against them in his fifth year, and Cheta-sar was king when the Cheta and the Egyptians made a new treaty in the twenty-first year of the reign of Rameses, at which time they seem to have reached the summit of their power. According to an inscription which appears to be the official statement concerning this memorable battle, Rameses II. was in the fifth year of his reign in the land of T’ah, not far from Kadesh on the Orontes. The outposts kept a sharp look-out,

EGYPTIAN HISTORY.

4’

Rameses II., when a child.

42 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT.

and when the army came to the south of the town of Shabtun, two of the spies of the Shasu came into the camp and pre- tended that they had been sent by the chiefs of their tribe to inform Rameses II. that they had forsaken the chief of the Cheta, and that they wished to make an alliance with his majesty and become his vassals. They then went on to say Defeat of that the chief of the Cheta was in the land of Chirebu to the eta. nort|1 Qf Tunep some distance off, and that he was afraid to come near the Egyptian king. These two men were giving false information, and they had actually been sent by the Cheta chief to find out where Rameses and his army were ; the Cheta chief and his army were at that moment drawn up in battle array behind Kadesh. Shortly after these men had Rameses been dismissed, an Egyptian scout came into the king’s warrior. presence bringing with him two spies from the army of the chief of the Cheta ; on being questioned, they informed Rameses that the chief of the Cheta was encamped behind Kadesh, and that he had succeeded in gathering together a multitude of soldiers and chariots from the countries round about. Rameses summoned his officers to his presence, and informed them of the news which he had just heard ; they listened with surprise, and insisted that the newly received information was untrue. Rameses seriously blamed the chiefs of the intelligence department for their neglect of duty, and they admitted their fault. Orders were straight- Capture of way issued for the Egyptian army to march upon Kadesh, Kadesh. an(j as ^ey were crossing an arm of the river near that city the hostile forces fell in with each other. When Rameses saw this, he " growled at them like his father Menthu, lord of Thebes," and having hastily put on his full armour, he mounted his chariot and drove into the battle. His onset was so sudden and rapid that before he knew where he was he found himself surrounded by the enemy, and completely isolated from his own troops. He called upon his father Amen-Ra to help him, and then addressed himself to the slaughter of all those that came in his way, and his prowess was so great that the enemy fell in heaps, one over the other, into the waters of the Orontes. He was quite alone, and not one of his soldiers or horsemen came near him to help him.

EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 43

It was only with great difficulty he succeeded in cutting his way through the ranks of the enemy. At the end of the inscription he says, " Everything that my majesty has stated, that did I in the presence of my soldiers and horsemen." In the poem of Pen-ta-urt the king is said to have been sur- rounded by 2,500 chariots. The defeat of the chief of the Cheta and his allies was crushing, and Rameses was able to demand and obtain much tribute.

In the eighth year of his reign he led an expedition against towns in southern Syria, and Ascaion among others fell into his hands, and within a few years Mesopotamians, Syrians, dwellers on the coast, Libyans, the Shaasu and Ethio- pians all submitted to him. In the twenty-first year of his reign he made a treaty with Mautenure, chief of the Cheta at Egyptian Tanis, the favourite dwelling-place of Rameses. This treaty the* Cheta. sets out at full length the relations which had existed between the two nations for some time before, and each party solemnly promises not to make war on the other, and to assist the other in war if required ; to cement the alliance Rameses married a daughter of the chief of the Cheta called Maa-ur-neferu-Ra.

Notwithstanding his activity in war, Rameses II. found Rameses time to make himself famous as one of the greatest builders builder, that ever sat on the throne of Egypt, and his name is found on stelae, obelisks, temples, etc., etc., from Beyrut in Syria to remote Napata. He built a temple of granite at Tanis, a town which seems to have been founded four hundred years before his time by Nubti, one of the so-called Hyksos kings. Near this city ran the wall from Pelusium to Heliopolis, which Rameses is supposed to have built to keep out the Asiatics. At Heliopolis he set up obelisks, none of which has come down to our time ; at Memphis he added largely to the temple of Ptah; and at Abydos he completed the temple begun by his father Seti I. At Thebes he finished the buildings begun by his father and grandfather ; he repaired the temples of Thothmes III. and Amenophis III., adding walls and doors, and occasionally usurping monuments of the kings who went before him; he set up statues of himself and two splendid obelisks before a building which he

44 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT.

made adjoining the temple of Amenophis III.; on the western side of Thebes he finished the temple originally dedicated to Rameses I., and consecrated it to his father Seti I. ; he restored the temple of Hatshepset at Der el-Bahari ; he built a temple at Medinet Habu, and at Thebes, his greatest work of all, the Ramesseum. The statues of himself which he placed in this last place are among the largest and finest known. At Bet el- Walt at Kalabshi in Nubia he built a beautiful little rock temple, on the walls of the court of which are some well executed sculptures representing the bringing of tribute to Rock him by Asiatics and Ethiopians. At Abu Simbel, the

Abu* 6 a classical Aboccis, he hewed out of the solid rock a large temple Simbel. to Ra Harmachis to commemorate his victory over the Cheta ; it is the largest and finest Egyptian monument in Nubia, and for simple grandeur and majesty is second to none in all Egypt. It is hewn out of the rock to a depth of 185 feet, and the surface of the rock, which originally sloped down to the river, was cut away for a space of about 90 feet to form the front of the temple, which is ornamented by four colossal statues of Rameses II., 66 feet high, seated on thrones, hewn out of the living rock. The large hall inside contains eight columns with large figures of Osiris about 17 feet high upon them. Among other matters the inscriptions give a list of the children of Rameses. The gold mines in the land of Akita, now Gebel Alaki, which were worked by Seti I., appear not to have been very profitable, by reason of the scarcity of water. The well which he sank to the depth of 120 cubits supplied little or no water, and the works in the mines were stopped. In the third year of his reign Rameses sent men to bore another well, and they found abundant water at the depth of twelve cubits.

Rameses II. is generally thought to have been the Oppression oppressor of the Jews in Egypt, and it was probably for him Tews6 tnat tney built the treasure-cities of Pithom and Raamses.

Rameses reigned sixty-seven years, and at his death he left Egypt one of the largest and most powerful kingdoms upon earth ; under him this country reached its highest point of prosperity and glory. The tribute brought in by conquered nations enriched the country, the hosts of foreign workmen

EGYPTIAN HISTORY.

45

B.C.

employed by the king produced articles of luxury and beauty, art and literature flourished unfettered, and the tombs and sepulchres of the dead were scarcely less splendid than the palaces of the king or the houses of his nobles. After the death of Rameses Egypt declined rapidly, chiefly through the inertness and want of national spirit possessed by the hosts of foreigners who lived there, and the country became a mart and a home of traders rather than of warriors.

Mer-en-Ptah, the thirteenth son of Rameses II., had been 1300 associated with his father in the rule of the kingdom before he ascended the throne. The chief event in his reign was an expedition against the Lebu, Kehak, Mashuash, Akauasha, Tursha, Leku, Sharetana and Shekelasha in the fifth year of his reign. The Lebu, thought by some to be the Libyans, under Maroi, the son of Titi, had advanced to the city of Pa- Bairo, and were preparing to march upon Heliopolis and Memphis ; Maroi himself had reached Pa-aru-shep, when the god Ptah appeared to Mer-en-Ptah in a dream and promised Defeat of him victory. On the third day of Epiphi the hostile forces ^ed joined in battle. Maroi fled, about thirteen thousand of his people were slain, and all his and their property fell into the hands of the Egyptians. The Akauasha have by some been identified with the Achaeans, the Sharetana with the Sardinians, the Shekelasha with the Sicilians, the Lebu with the Libyans, the Tursha with the Etruscans, the Leku with the Lycians, etc., etc. These identifications, based on a suggestion made by de Rouge, cannot be accepted, lacking as they do any historical evidence in support of them. It is quite certain, however, that the tribes against which Mer-en- Ptah fought were comparatively close neighbours of Egypt. The Exodus is thought by some to have taken place during The the reign of this king. Exodus-

Of Mer-en-Ptah’s successor, Seti II., but little is known ; his reign was very short, and was not distinguished by any remarkable event. The rule of the XlXth dynasty was brought to an end by the reigns of Amen-mes and Se-Ptah.

46

FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT.

B.C. 1200

Egyptians defeat the allied nations.

Expedition to Punt, and open- ing of old trade routes.

The Twentieth Dynasty.

For some years after the death of Mer-en-Ptah Egypt was in a state of anarchy, " each man did as he pleased, and there was no one who had authority over his fellows. The Land of Egypt was under chiefs of nomes and each fought against

the other." After a time " a Syrian called Arsu," u !§ 1<£

1 21 _Ln 1 M- I I SF ar°Se amon£ them and succeeded in diverting the tribute to himself and finally in making himself master of the land. Rest and peace were not restored to Egypt, however, until the gods set their son Set-Necht upon the throne, who very shortly after associated his son Rameses III. with him in the rule of the kingdom. On the death of Set-Necht Rameses III. reigned alone, and having established the worship of the gods in the temples, and restored the customary offerings, in the eighth year he set out with his troops for the north-eastern borders of his country to do battle against the allied forces of the Mashuash, Leku, Shekelasha and other Asiatic peoples, who had come to the land of the Amorites partly by land and partly by sea ; the Egyptians were victorious and inflicted a crushing defeat on the enemy. A year or two after Rameses attacked the Mashuasha, who appear to have settled in the western part of the Delta and further south, and they were defeated with great slaughter. About this time he seems to have carried on some small wars in Nubia. In addition to his wars, he fitted out and despatched an expedition to Punt, which returned safely, bringing many marvellous things and treasures ; he worked the turquoise mines in the Sinaitic Peninsula, and the copper mines in the land of Ataka. He also opened up for trade the old road between Kosseir on the Red Sea and Coptos on the Nile. With the spoil which Rameses obtained from his successful wars, and the wealth which he gained from his mines and trading enterprises, he lavishly endowed the temples of Heliopolis, Memphis and Thebes. At Tell el-Yahudiyeh he built a granite and limestone temple, at Heliopolis he restored temples, at Memphis he restored the temple of Ptah, he added to the temple of Thothmes III. at Medinet Habu, and at the

EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 47

same place he built what has been generally called his " palace," and a magnificent temple to Amen-Ra. The “palace” consisted of two square towers, the four sides of which were symmetrically inclined to a common centre. The interior chambers were ornamented with sculptures, on which were depicted scenes in the domestic (?) life of the king. The temple at Medinet Habu is of remarkable interest, and on the Medinet walls are sculptured battle scenes on land and sea, in which J^bu Rameses is victorious over his enemies. Near Karnak he Karnak. built a temple to Ptah, and he added buildings to the temple of Amen-Ra there ; he began to build the temple of Chonsu, and it would seem that he repaired many of the temples and shrines set up both at Karnak and Luxor. The most important document for the history of the reign of this king is the famous Harris Papyrus No. i,now preserved in the Harris British Museum. It was found in a box, in a rough-hewn aPyrus rock chamber in the earth, near Medinet Habu. This papyrus enumerates the gifts which he made to the gods of Thebes, Heliopolis and Memphis, and concludes with a statement of the principal events of his reign. This wonderful papyrus, which measures 135 feet by 17 inches, was published in facsimile by the Trustees of the British Museum, with an introduction and translation by Dr. Birch.

Of Rameses IV. little is known beyond the fact that he 1166^1133 carried on the works in the mines in the valley of Hammamat with great diligence ; he was succeeded by Rameses V., of whom also very little is known. Of Rameses VI., the most important remains are his tomb in Biban el-Muluk ; on the walls the risings of various stars are given and much astro- Astro- nomical information. This tomb was originally made for ^es a\ Rameses V. Rameses VII. and Rameses VIII. were the Thebes, next rulers of Egypt ; the most important event in the reign of Rameses IX. was the attempt to break into and rob the royal tombs at Thebes in his sixteenth year. The robbers were caught and prosecuted by the government, and after an official examination of the tombs had been made by the chief officers of the city, to find out exactly what Robberyof damage had been done, the band of thieves were properly J0^ punished. The robbery had gone on for some years, and

48 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT.

appears to have been continued in the nineteenth year of the reign of Rameses IX. The reigns of Rameses X. and Rameses XI. are of no interest. Of the reign of their successor Rameses XII. an interesting though fabulous story is recorded. A stele found near the temple of Chonsu at Karnak states that the king was paying his usual visit to Mesopotamia to receive the tribute from the tribes subject to him. Each chief brought his offering of gold, etc., but the Princess of chief of Bechten brought his eldest daughter, who was a most beautiful girl, and gave her to the king. She found favour in his sight, and he married her, and gave her the official title of " royal spouse." Some time after they had returned to Egypt, a messenger came to the king from Bechten saying that a young sister of his wife Ra-Neferu, called Bentresh, was grievously ill, and entreated him to send a physician to heal her. A very learned scribe called Tehuti-em-heb was despatched, but when he arrived in Bechten he found that the illness of Bentresh was caused by an evil spirit, and he was unable to cure her. Another messenger was sent to Egypt and he asked that the god Chonsu himself might be sent to cure Bentresh, and the king having asked the god to consent to this proposition, prepared a suitable shrine and sent the god to Bechten, where he arrived after a journey of one year and five months. As soon as the god was brought into the sick maiden’s chamber, he addressed the demon who possessed her and drove him out from her. The demon acknowledged the authority of the god, and promised to depart to his own place if a great feast was prepared in his honour ; the chief of Bechten gladly made a feast, and the demon departed. The god Chonsu was detained in Bechten three years and nine months, and at the end of that time he returned to Egypt, his priests bringing rich gifts with them. Although it is proved now that this narrative is a romance and not history, it is nevertheless of great antiquity, and is most important as show- ing the belief in demoniacal possession at that remote period. The country of Bechten is unknown, but if, as is stated, seven- teen months were spent in reaching it, its situation must have been very far from E gypt. With the reign of Rameses XIII., the XXth dynasty comes to an end.

egyptian history. 49

The Twenty- first Dynasty.

With the death of Rameses XIII. a new period of dis- “Priest- order came over the government of Egypt, and for nearly one 0^s ru e hundred years there seems to have been no legal king seated Egypt- on the throne. The chief priest of Amen called Her-Heru- se-Amen had little by little gathered the power of a king into his own hand, and finally he declared himself u King of Upper and Lower Egypt,” and thus became the first of the B c so-called “priest-kings” of the XXIst dynasty. His dwelling- 1100-1000 place was Thebes, and the buildings which he carried out there, instead of being inscribed with the records of glorious victories over the foes of Egypt, were decorated with inscrip- tions of a purely religious character. The tribes that were subject to Egypt, and were at that moment unprepared for war, paid their tribute to him as the successor of the Pharaohs, but it was not to be expected that a ruler who devoted more time to the service of Amen than to war, could maintain his sovereignty over restless and warlike peoples like the Cheta, or Retennu, of whom he calls himself the conqueror. During his reign the mummies and coffins and funereal furniture of some of the kings of the XVIIth, XVIIIth and XlXth dynasties were brought from their tombs and deposited together in one place, now called in Arabic Der el-bahari, Derel- where they were discovered by an Arab in 1871. For the MmmJuea account of the recovery of these by Brugsch-Bey and Maspero, see Maspero, Les Monties Roy ales de Deir el Bahari, fasc. 1, torn. IV., of the Memoires of the French Archaeological Mission at Cairo.

Her-Heru was succeeded by his grandson, Pi-net’em I., the son of Pi-anchi, the high-priest of Amen, the husband of Maat ka-Ra, a princess who belonged to the old line of kings ; Pi-net’em II. married the royal daughter and royal wife Het-Hert-hent-taui, but appears never to have been actually king. Wiedemann doubts the existence of this king.1 Of Paseb-cha-nut, Men-cheper-Ra and his son Pi- netem III. but little is known ; they were succeeded by Paseb-cha-nut II., during whose reign Solomon captured

1 A eg. Gesc/iu/ite, p. 536. B. M. E

50

FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT.

Solomon becomes king of Palestine.

the town of Gezer, and having conquered the Canaanites there, became king of Palestine. It is thought by some that his Egyptian wife was the daughter of one of the kings of the XXIst dynasty. The history of this period is very uncertain, and definite conclusions respecting it cannot be arrived at without fuller information.

Babylon- ian origin of kings of XXIInd dynasty.

B.C. 966 800

Conquest of Pales- tine and capture of Jerusalem.

The Twenty-second Dynasty.

Various theories have been propounded concerning the origin of the kings of this dynasty ; the father of its first king Shashanq I. was called Nemart, a name which has been identified with that of Nimrod. From the fact that the names Usarken, Thekeleth, common to several of its kings, resemble the Assyrian and Babylonian names Sarginu, " Sargon," and Tukulti, " Tiglath," it has been generally assumed that they sprang either from a purely Semitic race in Mesopotamia itself, or from Semites who had been settled in the Delta for a considerable time. That they were of foreign extraction is certain, because the determinative placed at the end of their names is that of a man from a foreign

country I ; 1 and the people called Ma, of whom Nemart

styles himself the prince, have been proved by De Rouge" to be simply the Mashuasha.

Shashanq I., the Shishak (pttW) of the Bible, the pro- tector of Jeroboam, who lifted up his hand against Solomon (1 Kings xi. 26), led an expedition against Rehoboam, king of Judah, and took away from Jerusalem " the treasures of the house of the Lord, and the treasures of the king’s house, he even took away all : and he took away all the shields of gold which Solomon had made." (1 Kings xiv. 25, 26.) The list of the cities and districts, about 138 in number, captured by Shashanq during this war is inscribed upon the south wall of the temple of Amen-Ra at Karnak. The wife of Shashanq was called Kerama, and their son Aauput. Of the acts of Usarken (Sargon) I., Thekeleth (Tiglath) I., Usarken II., and Shashanq II. but little is known, and the

1 De Rouge, MHanges tfArcheohgie, t. I, p. 87.

EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 5 I

reigns of these kings were uneventful. During the reign of Thekeleth II. a rebellion broke out among the peoples to the south and north of Egypt, and it is stated that on the 25th of Mesori, in the fifteenth year of his reign, an eclipse of the moon took place. Shashanq III. made great gifts to the temple of Amen-Ra at Thebes. He reigned fifty-two years ; and an Apis bull which had been born in his twenty-eighth year, died in the second year of the reign of his successor Pamai. During the reign of Shashanq IV. three Apis bulls Death of died, the last in the thirty-seventh year of his reign. pis

The Twenty-third Dynasty.

B.C.

Of the history of Peta-Bast, its first king, nothing is 766 known from Egyptian monuments, and for the events of the reign of his successor, Usarken III., we have to rely upon the information supplied by a stele recording the invasion Conquest and conquest of Egypt by Pianchi, king of Ethiopia. When ? pf^fchi the kings of Egypt sent to that country in the Vlth dynasty, the Ethio- no opposition was offered by the natives to their felling trees, pia! but in the Xllth dynasty the Egyptians found it necessary to guard against them at the first cataract by lightly-armed, swift soldiers. From the Xllth to the XXth dynasty Egypt maintained her authority over Ethiopia, and her kings built magnificent temples there, and ruled the country by a staff of officers under the direction of the " Prince of Cush." In the unsettled times which followed the death of Rameses II., the Ethiopians saw that the power of Egypt to maintain her supremacy abroad was becoming less and less. For many years they paid their customary tribute to his feeble suc- cessors, but at the same time they looked forward to a time Defection when they could cast off the yoke of Egypt. They had °^shl° adopted Egyptian civilization, the hieroglyphic form of writing, and the language and religion of Egypt ; they seem to have wished to make a second Egypt in Ethiopia. When during the reigns of the kings of the XXIst and XXI Ind dynasties they saw that the power of Egypt continued to decrease, they boldly resolved to found a kingdom of their Ethiopians own, and they chose Napata, now called Gebel Barkal, as the £}n"°|om site of their capital. Brugsch thinks {Egypt under the

E 2

52 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT.

Pharaohs, 2nd ed, 1881, Vol. II., p. 235) that the founder of the kingdom was one of the descendants of Her-Heru, the priest-king of the XXIst dynasty, and he points out that many of them bore the name of Pianchi. Early in the eighth century before Christ Pi-anchi was king of Napata, and his rule probably extended at least as far north as Thebes. In the twenty- first year of his reign news was brought to him that Tafnecht, prince of Sai’s and Memphis, had revolted, that a league formed chiefly of governors of towns had placed him at its head, and that all Lower Egypt was in his hands. Pianchi’s Pianchi at once sent troops against the rebels, and on their to &rvptn way down the Nile they met a number of soldiers belonging to the army of Tafnecht, and these they defeated. The Ethiopian troops seem not to have been unvaryingly suc- cessful, for it was necessary for Pianchi himself to come to Thebes ; thence he marched to Hermopolis, which surrendered after a three days’ siege. Nimrod, who had defended it, delivered up to Pianchi his wives, palace, horses and every- thing he had. Pianchi set out once more for the north, and every city opened its gates to him until he reached Memphis. Here he met with strong opposition, for Tafnecht had brought several thousands of soldiers into the city, and every part of the wall was guarded by them. Pianchi, Capture of however, brought his boats up to the very walls of the city, Thebes, an(j after a vigorous assault captured it ; there was a mighty and Sals, slaughter, and it would seem that some thousands of men were slain. The rebel princes came in one by one, and tendered their submission to the Ethiopian, and thus Pianchi became master of Egypt. At Memphis, Heliopolis and Thebes he offered sacrifices to the great gods of Egypt, and no acts of wanton destruction of cities or buildings are recorded of him.

*£ The Twenty-Fourth Dynasty.

733

Bocchoris This dynasty is represented by a single king called Bak-

aJj™’ en-ren-f (Bocchoris), who reigned but a very few years ; many

legends concerning him are extant in classical writers, but the

Egyptian monuments scarcely mention him. According to

Manetho he was burnt alive by Sabaco the first king of the

XXVth dynasty.

egyptian history. 53

The Twenty-Fifth Dynasty. b.c.

700

The kings of this dynasty were Ethiopians, who following up the success of Pianchi, made themselves masters of all Alliance of Egypt. The first king, Shabaka, is known from the Egyptian andShea inscriptions to have beautified the temple of Karnak, and his Sabaco. name is found on many buildings there to which he made additions or repairs. He is best known as being the king of Egypt to whom Hoshea (2 Kings xvii. 4), having ceased to send his customary tribute to the king of Assyria, went for help. Some think that Shabaka (Hebrew fc^D, which Schrader would point N}D) was not king of all Egypt, because Sargon, king of Assyria (B.C. 721-705) styles him simply shil- tauna, “prince.“1 Sabaco seems to have been known in Nineveh, for among the ruins of the palaces at Kouyunjik Egyptian were found two impressions from his seal or scarab, in which founad ^t he appears wearing the crown of Lower Egypt V; in his right Nineveh. hand he holds a stick or club, and he is in the act of slaughter- ing enemies. His cartouche stands above, together with his titles and the legend recording the speech of some god, rt I give to thee all foreign lands.” 2

Sabaco was succeeded by his son Shabataka, concerning whom the Egyptian inscriptions tell us very little. During the reign of this king Sargon of Assyria died, and was succeeded by Sennacherib, who within a few years set out to suppress the rebellion which had broken out in Syria and Phoenicia. The prince of Ekron, Padi, who had been set upon the throne by Sargon, was seized by a crowd of rebels, who had obtained help from Hezekiah, king of Judah, and Hezekiah, made prisoner ; Hezekiah himself likewise appealed to the ju"fh°f Egyptian king for assistance. Sennacherib marched on provokes

the wr3.th

Judaea, and at Altekeh he met the allied forces of Jews and Qf the Egyptians. The battle was short and decisive, the Assyrians Assynans- were victorious, and Sennacherib having wasted the country with fire, and destroyed the towns, captured and plundered Defeat of Jerusalem, where Hezekiah had shut himself up " like a bird ^zeklah in a cage.” Padi was restored to the throne of Ekron, and capture of

Jerusalem.

1 See Schrader, Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament ‘, 1883, p. 269.

2 A full description of these fragments is given in the chapter on scarabs.

54 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT.

Judaea became an Assyrian province. Sennacherib, hearing of the advance of Tirhakah king of Ethiopia, determined to march on the Delta, and it was during this march that an epidemic broke out among his troops, and a catastrophe Assyrian destroyed nearly alj of them ; he returned to Nineveh without trove/65 having performed upon Hezekiah the vengeance which he had threatened. The ultimate failure of his expedition probably caused his sons to despise him, and shortly after- wards two of them, Adrammelech and Sharezer, smote him with the sword, and he died (2 Kings xix. 37). Shabataka reigned twelve years, and was put to death by Tirhakah, who succeeded him.

B.C.

693 Taharqa, or Tirhakah PTjXPjfl, shortly after his accession

to the throne, made an offensive and defensive alliance with

Alliance of the Phoenicians under Baal king of Tyre, and probably also

Hezekiah w^ ^ pCOpie 0f Cyprus; Hezekiah king of Judah also

Tirhakah. joined in the league. Esarhaddon, son of Sennacherib,

marched to Palestine by way of Beyrut, where on his return

to Assyria he set up a memorial slab at the head of the Nahr

el-Kelb side by side with those of Rameses II. Without

difficulties other than those caused by thirst and heat his

army marched into Egypt, and Tirhakah having fled,

Capture of Memphis fell into the hands of the Assyrian king. From

byCEsar- Memphis he marched to Thebes, and having plundered the

haddon. city, and placed the rule of the whole country under twenty

governors, some Assyrian, some Egyptian, he returned to

Assyria laden with spoil. On the death of Esarhaddon, after

a reign of thirteen years (B.C. 681-668), Tirhakah returned

to Egypt and entered Memphis boldly ; he drove out the

Assyrians that were there, and openly attended the burial of

an Apis bull in the twenty-fourth year of his reign. As soon

Assurbani- as the news of the return of Tirhakah to Egypt reached

StiofctcT Assurbanipal, the son of Esarhaddon, in Nineveh, he set out

Egypt. with his army for Egypt ; he came up with the Egyptian

troops at Karbanit, and completely defeated them, and

Tirhakah, who had remained in Memphis, was obliged to flee

to Thebes ; when Assurbanipal followed him thither, he fled

into Nubia. When the Assyrian king had reappointed

governors over the chief towns of Egypt, and established

EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 55

garrisons there, he returned to Nineveh. Soon after this Niku, governor of Memphis, headed a rebellion against the Assyrian rule, but he was promptly sent to Nineveh in chains ; Assurbanipal so far forgave him, that when he heard of new successes of Tirhakah in Egypt, he sent Niku back to his country to rule over all Egypt under the direction of Assyria ; soon after his arrival Tirhakah died. Tirhakah Tirhakah’s built a large temple at Gebel Barkal, and restored temples l^jfubm. and other buildings at Thebes.

Rut-Amen, son of Sabaco (?), succeeded Tirhakah, and in consequence of a dream, set out to regain for Ethiopia the rule over Egypt. Without very much difficulty he captured Thebes, and advanced on Memphis, where he was opposed by the Assyrian governor ; in the fight which ensued Rut- Amen (the Urdamanah of Assurbanipal’s inscriptions) was victorious, and again Memphis fell into the hands of the Ethiopians Ethiopians. Once more Assurbanipal marched to Egypt, capture where he defeated Rut-Amen’s army, and advanced on Memphis. Thebes, whither the rebel king had fled. Having arrived there, the sack and pillage of the city by the Assyrians followed. A stele found at Gebel Barkal relates that Nut-Amen, a king “Stt/eof of Ethiopia, had a dream, in consequence of which he set out Dream.” to regain the rule over Egypt, and that having gained authority over Thebes and Memphis and the Delta, he returned to Ethiopia ; in the Nut-Amen of this stele, and the Urdamanah of the cuneiform inscriptions, we have probably one and the same king.

The Twenty-stxth Dynasty.

B C

Psammetichus I, the first king of this dynasty, was the 666 son of a governor (Niku ?) of Memphis and Sai’s in Lower Egypt, and had been associated with Nut-Amen in the rule of the country. When the Ethiopian king retired to his own land, Psammetichus became king of Egypt. He married Shep-en-apt, a daughter of Pianchi, and thus secured himself from any attack by the Ethiopians ; and by the help of the Ionian and Carian soldiers whom Gyges king of Lydia sent to him, he was able to overcome the Assyrian governors who, one after another, made war upon him, and resisted his

5<5

FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT.

Defeat of the Assyrians.

Revival of arts and sciences, and liter- ature ilourishes.

B.C. 612

Necho’s Canal.

authority. A decisive battle took place at Memphis ; the Assyrians were utterly routed, and Psammetichus found himself firmly seated on the throne of Egypt. A permanent settlement was assigned by him to the Ionians and Carians, and his favour to these foreign soldiers so exasperated the Egyptian troops, that 200,000 are said to have forsaken Egypt and settled in Nubia. Psammetichus appears to have decided that it was useless to attempt to make great con- quests of remote countries, as did the kings of old, but set to work to consolidate his kingdom, and to defend its borders. He was a devout worshipper of the gods, and he repaired and rebuilt many of the decayed buildings at Heliopolis, Mendes, Memphis, Abydos and Thebes. He lived at his birthplace, Sai’s, and made it the capital of his kingdom. He was a wise patron of the arts and sciences, and during his rule the great renaissance of art took place. The statues and wall paintings of the first empire were diligently copied, many new copies of ancient religious works were made, and the smallest and greatest monuments of this period, as well as objects of ornament, are characterized by a high finish and elaboration of detail, which was the peculiar product of this time.

Necho II., son of Psammetichus I. and Shepenapt, continued the policy of his father, and added a considerable number of foreign troops to his army ; he gave the Greeks every facility to enter and settle in Egypt, and he assisted the commercial enterprise of the day as much as possible. With the view of joining the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, he dug a canal from a place near Pithom, a little above Bubastis, on the Pelusiac arm of the Nile, which passing first through the plain, flowed through a valley between the spurs of the Mukattam hills, in a southerly direction, until it emptied itself into the Arabian Gulf. It was an indirect connecting of the Medi- teranean with the Red Sea by means of the Nile, and did not correspond with the Suez Canal, except in the /each from the Bitter Lakes to Suez, in which it followed a somewhat similar course.1 About 120,000 men perished during the work, and when an oracle announced that he was only work- ing for the good of foreigners, Necho desisted from his under-

1 Wiedemann, Aegyptische Geschiehte, p. 626.

EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 57

taking. Necho also sent Phoenician seamen to sail round Africa, bidding them to set out from Suez and come home by- way of the Strait of Gibraltar ; on their return, they stated in proof of their having accomplished their task, that they had seen the sun rise on their right hand as they sailed from east to west. A few years before Nebuchadnezzar (B.C. 604-558) Rise of ascended the throne of Babylon, Necho set out on the march ^ylonian to Mesopotamia, and on the road was opposed by Josiah Empire, king of Judah, at Megiddo. Then Pharaoh Necho “sent ambassadors to him saying, What have I to do with thee, thou king of Judah ? / come not against thee this day, but against the house wherewith I have war : for God commanded me to make haste : forbear thee from meddling with God, who is with me, that he destroy thee not. Nevertheless Josiah would not turn his face from him, but disguised himself, that he might fight with him, and hearkened not unto the words of Necho from the mouth of God, and came to fight in the valley of Megiddo. And the archers shot at king Josiah ; and the Death of king said to his servants, Have me away ; for I am sore a ’ wounded. His servants therefore took him out of that chariot, and put him in the second chariot that he had ; and they brought him to Jerusalem, and he died, and was buried in one of the sepulchres of his fathers.” l Necho went on his way to Carchemish, but did not go any farther into Mesopo- tamia. On his return he marched to Jerusalem and deposed Jehoahaz, the son of Josiah, whom the Jews had set up as king in the place of his father, and made Eliakim (Jehoiakim), another son of Josiah, king in his stead ; he also imposed a tax of one hundred talents of silver, and a talent of gold.2 Soon after Necho had returned to Egypt he heard that a Babylonian army was marching into western Asia, and he again set out for Carchemish, where it was encamped. On his arrival there he found that the Babylonian forces were com- manded by Nebuchadnezzar II., and in the battle which Nebuchad- followed the Egyptian king was utterly defeated ; his troops, Evades Libyans, Ethiopians, and Egyptians, were slain by thousands, Egypt, and Nebuchadnezzar marched through Palestine to the borders of Egypt. Necho reigned sixteen years, and was buried at

1 2 Chron. xxxv. 21-24. * 2 Chron. xxxvi. 1-4.

58 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT.

Sais ; he was succeeded by his son Psammetichus II., whose reign of a few years was, comparatively, unimportant.

B.C.

591 Apries, in Egyptian Uah-ab-Ra, Heb. SHEIl ( Jeremiah

xliv. 30), made an attack upon Tyre and Sidon by sea ; Sidon was captured, and the Cyprian fleet which attempted to resist him was destroyed. The Babylonians marched to Capture of besiege Jerusalem during his reign, and Nebuchadnezzar jerusa em. having already had Jehoiakim and Jehoiachin, kings of Judah, brought to him in fetters at Babylon, determined to punish the new king Zedekiah who had rebelled against him. Not- withstanding the presence of some troops of Apries, Nebu- chadnezzar took Jerusalem, and having blinded Zedekiah and slain his sons before his eyes, set up Gedaliah as king in his stead. Multitudes of Jews flocked to Egypt, where they were received by Apries, and this act of the Egyptian king drew upon him the wrath of Nebuchadnezzar. After a siege Fall of of thirteen years, Tyre fell into the hands of the Babylonian yre* king, who thus became master of Phoenicia and Egypt, for

Apries had no army to set in the field against him. In a dispute which broke out between the Cyrenians and the Libyans, Apries sent an Egyptian force to help the latter people, for he had a treaty with their king, Adikran. The hostile forces met in battle, but the Egyptian troops were defeated with a great slaughter, and their countrymen were enraged and asserted that Apries had intentionally sent them against the Greeks that they might be destroyed. When the troops returned to Egypt a rebellion broke out among them, Defection and Apries sent Amasis, an officer, to put it down ; but while ancf defeat ne was addressing the disaffected troops, a soldier placed a of Apries. helmet on his head, and declared him king, and all the other soldiers agreeing in this, king he became. Apries then sent Patarbemis to bring Amasis to him, and because he was unsuccessful in his mission, he gave orders that his nose and ears should be cut off. Soon after this, Apries marched against Amasis, and in the battle which took place at Momemphis, on the Canopic arm of the Nile, his troops were defeated, and he himself was taken prisoner and led back to his palace at Sal’s ; he was shortly after strangled and buried with his fathers in the temple of Neith. Before the death of

EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 59

Apries Nebuchadnezzar II. is said to have invaded Egypt, and to have sailed up as far as Aswan.

B C

Amasis II. became sole king of Egypt after the death of 572 Apries, and as he had married Anch-nes-nefer-ab-Ra, daughter of Psammetichus II. and of Nit-aqert, a sister of Apries, the Egyptians regarded him as, more or less, a legal successor to the throne. He continued the policy of his predecessors towards foreigners, and gave the Greeks many valuable trading Greeks privileges ; in his reign Naucratis became a very important ad™ltte(j city, and the centre of Greek influence in Egypt. In addition and rise of to Anch-nes-nefer-ab-Ra he married Ladike, said to be aucratls- the daughter either of Critoboulos or Battus or Arcesilaus the Cyrenian ; according to Herodotus he was the first king of Egypt who conquered Cyprus. The same historian says (III. I) that Cambyses, king of Persia, made war upon him because, having demanded from Amasis his daughter to wife, the Egyptian king sent to him Nitetis, the daughter of Apries, as his own daughter ; when the damsel declared who she was, Cambyses was greatly enraged, and determined to invade Egypt. During his long reign of forty-five years Amasis repaired and added to the temples in many parts of Egypt, and he worked the mines in the valley of Hammamat. He did not live to see the invasion of the Persians, but he left the country in such a flourishing condition that it formed very rich spoil for them.

Psammetichus III., together with his army, formed of 528 Greek and Egyptian troops, marched against the Persians and did battle with them at Pelusium, but he was utterly routed, and the conquering host took possession of Egypt, Egyptians and marched on to Memphis, whither the remainder of the Cambyses7 Egyptian army had fled for protection. The reign of Psam- metichus lasted but a few months, and he was taken captive to Persia, where he suffered a miserable death.

The Twenty-seventh Dynasty.

Cambyses, the first king of the Persian dynasty, seems to 527 have been of a revengeful disposition, for, according to legend, when he arrived at Sais he is said to have ordered the mummy of Amasis to be dragged from its tomb, and having caused it

6o

FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT.

Desecra- tion of mummies and tombs by Cam- byses.

Restora- tion of Temple of Neith at Sals.

B.C. 521

The coin- age and good govern- ment of Darius.

Red Sea Canal.

to be illtreated had it burned. Tradition, in general, states that this king caused many barbarous acts to be performed by his soldiers, and the wrecking of many tombs and statues in Egypt is said to date from his reign. His expeditions against the Nubians and the people of the Oasis proving disastrous, he returned to Memphis in exasperation and grief, and finding the whole town in festival, on account of the appearance of a new Apis bull, he ordered this god to be brought to him, and, in a fit of rage, stabbed it in the thigh. Another view of the character of Cambyses is, however, given by an inscription on the statue of a naval commander under Cambyses and Darius, preserved in the Vatican. This officer, called Ut’a-Heru-en- pe-resu, states that when Cambyses came to Sai’s he ordered the temple of Neith to be cleansed, he restored its revenues and sacred festivals, he performed all the rites there, and established the offerings according to what the kings before him had done. When Darius was king of Egypt the same official was appointed by him to re-establish the school of scribes in Egypt, and he seems to have had some influence in preserv- ing Sais from the destruction which Cambyses spread over the country, and he probably helped Darius to establish the beneficent government in Egypt for which he is famous. Cambyses died from a wound in the thigh, accidentally caused by his own dagger while mounting his horse.

On ascending the throne Darius Hystaspes, the successor of Cambyses, set to work to improve the condition of the country, and to repair the damage done to the prestige of Persian government in Egypt by Cambyses. He deposed Ary- andes, the Persian satrap of Egypt, appointed by Cambyses, and caused him to be slain, because he had made an attack on Cyrene, and because of his cruelty and misgovernment. Darius established a coinage, rearranged the taxation of the country, and completed the canal to join the Red Sea and the Medi- terranean which Necho had begun. The course of this canal can still be traced by the inscriptions in hieroglyphics, and in Persian, Median, and Assyrian cuneiform, which cover the rocks near which the canal passed. As stated above, Darius re-established the school of scribes in Egypt, and spared no pains to improve the condition of the people, and to increase

B.C.

EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 6 1

the trade of the country by land and sea. Towards the end of his reign, while the Persians were fighting the Greeks, Egypt threw off the Persian yoke, and set up Chabbesha as king ; Darius never recovered his hold upon Egypt, and died after a reign of about thirty-six years.

Soon after Xerxes I. ascended the throne, he marched to 486 Egypt to reassert the Persian supremacy ; he broke through the defences which Chabbesha had set up on the mouths of Persians the Nile and in the marshes, and taking possession of the £rconjiuer country compelled the Egyptians to send a contigent of two hundred ships to assist him in his attack upon Greece ; the crews of these ships distinguished themselves by their bravery at the battle of Artemisium. After the murder of Xerxes by Artabanus, Artaxerxes I. became king of Egypt, but 465 towards the end of his reign the Egyptians, headed by Inarus, king of Lybia, assisted by a fleet of two or three hundred Athenian ships, again revolted and refused either to pay taxes, or to acknowledge the Persian authority. Artaxerxes sent a force of 300,000 or 400,000 to put down the revolt, and a battle took place near Papremis ; the Persians, owing to their overwhelming numbers, were at first victorious, but were subsequently beaten, and those that escaped from the general massacre fled to Memphis for refuge, and were besieged there by the Egyptians. Soon after this Artaxerxes sent more Fall of troops to Egypt, and these having surrounded Memphis, the Memphis. Athenians were compelled first to withdraw, and secondly to burn their ships ; Inarus was wounded in an engagement and taken captive to Persia, where he was crucified or impaled. Amyrtaeus, the governor of a town in the Delta and an ally of Inarus, fled to the marshes, and the Persians appointed Pausiris and Thannyras, their sons respectively, rulers over the Delta in their stead. Xerxes II., the next king of Egypt, was murdered by his brother Sogdianus, and towards the end of the reign of Darius II., his successor, the Egyptians once more rebelled, and regained their independence under Amyrtaeus of Sai’s about B.C. 405.

The Twenty-eighth Dynasty. Of Amen-rut or Amyrtaeus, the only king of this dynasty, 400 very little is known ; his native city was Sai’s, but it is not

62 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT.

likely that he is identical with the Amyrtaeus who assisted the ill-fated Inarus to rebel against the Persians.

The Twenty-ninth Dynasty.

B.C.

399 Naifaarut I., or Nepherites, the first king of this dynasty,

was a native of Mendes, and he associated his son Nectanebus

with him in the rule of the kingdom. He supplied the

Lacedaemonians with wood for building one hundred triremes

and half a million bushels of grain at the time when

Agesilaus was fighting against the Persians.1 He reigned six

393 years, and was succeeded by P-se-mut or Psammuthis, who

was in turn succeeded by Haker. Of Haker, or Achoris,

the inscriptions say nothing, although his name is found

inscribed on buildings and temples at Thebes, and in the

quarries of Ma’sara and Turah. Towards the end of his

Egyptians reign Achoris became an ally of Evagoras, king of Cyprus,

war against but tne king of Persia, against whom they began a war,

Persians, succeeded in destroying their united fleet, and shortly after

Achoris died, having reigned twelve or thirteen years. He

379 seems to have been succeeded by Naifaarut II., who was,

however, soon deposed on account of his unpopularity with

the people.

The Thirtieth Dynasty.

378 To Necht-neb-f, or Nectanebus I., the son of Naifaarut I.,

the first king of this dynasty, fell the task of continuing the

war which Achoris, his predecessor, and Evagoras, king of

Persian Cyprus, had begun against Artaxerxes II. The Persian

upon* king attacked Cyprus with great determination, but Evagoras

Cyprus. met his forces with about one hundred ships and six thousand

soldiers, and succeeded in partially stopping the supplies of

grain for the enemy, in consequence of which a rebellion

broke out among them. He increased his fleet as much as

he was able, and with the addition of fifty ships from Egypt,

attacked the Persians with all haste ; in the great battle

which followed, however, his ships were scattered or sunk,

1 Wiedemann thinks that the king of Egypt who assisted the Greeks in this matter is, from chronological grounds, more likely to have been Achoris. {A eg: Geschichte, p. 698.)

EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 63

and the Persians sailed on to attack Salamis, Evagoras fled to Egypt to obtain supplies from Nectanebus to carry on the war, but when he returned he found that his capital was besieged, and that his allies had fled. He straightway tendered his submission to the Persians, who finally decided to accept from him a yearly tribute and to consider him a vassal of Persia. The war against Evagoras being at an end, the Persian king next directed his attention to an attack Persian upon Egypt, and placing the Persian troops under the com- attack mand of Pharnabazus, and his Greek troops under that of Egypt. Iphicrates, he advanced against Egypt with nearly a quarter of a million soldiers and three hundred ships of war. Nec- tanebus on his part fortified each of the seven mouths of the Nile, giving particular attention to strengthening the defences Egyptians on the Pelusiac mouth, and he flooded the whole country rjSta* e round. When the Persian generals saw this they deter- mined to make their attack by the Mendesian mouth of the Nile, and after a battle they succeeded in capturing the fort which commanded it, and reduced its defenders to slavery. A dispute next arose between Pharnabazus and Iphicrates as to an immediate attack upon Memphis, and while the former was opposing the march upon this city by the latter, the Egyptians themselves mustered a strong force there, and in the battles which followed the arrival of the allied army of Persians and Greeks were generally successful. Soon after this, owing to the inundation of the Nile, the Persians with- Retreat drew to Syria, and Iphicrates returned to Athens ; thus the p^^ns attack of the Persians, notwithstanding their immense army, came to nought. Nectanebus restored and added to many of the temples of Egypt, and after a reign of eighteen years was succeeded by T’chehra, or Teos (Tachos), who reigned but 360 two years ; the Egyptian inscriptions make no mention of this king. From Greek historians we learn that Teos levied a tax on the Egyptians to carry on the war, and that, contrary to the advice of Agesilaus, one of his allies, he advanced to attack Phoenicia. During his absence the Egyptians revolted, and sent messengers to Syria to invite Nectanebus II., the lawful heir to the throne of Egypt, to come and take pos- session of his country. The allies of Teos forsook him, and

64

FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT.

B.C.

358

Persian attack upon Phoenicia.

Persians

capture

Cyprus.

Persians

capture

Memphis.

Flight of Nectane- bus.

he fled to the court of Artaxerxes II. and of Ochus the Persian kings, where, after a time spent in riotous living, he died.

Necht-neb-f, or Nectanebus II., was the last native king of Egypt, and having been helped by Agesilaus to overthrow a native of Mendes who aspired to the throne, he assumed the rule of the kingdom without further opposition. After the death of Artaxerxes II., Ochus determined to make an attack upon Egypt and Cyprus and Phoenicia, the kings of which had joined forces with each other and with the Egyptians to make themselves independent. Tennes, the king of Sidon, successfully expelled a number of Perc* from Phoenicia, but when he heard that Ochus himselt was coming to take vengeance upon him for this proceeding, he sent messengers to him to tender his submission, and to promise him his help in invading Egypt. The Persian king promised to overlook the past, but marched on Sidon, not- withstanding, and surrounded it ; Tennes betrayed the city and led Artaxerxes and his army into it, whereupon the Sidonians destroyed their fleet and set fire to their houses with themselves and their wives and families inside them. The treachery of Tennes availed him nothing, for he was put to death by Artaxerxes. Phoenicia, and soon after Cyprus, fell into the hands of the Persian king, who now made ready in earnest to conquer Egypt. In a few small preliminary battles fought on the north-east frontier of Egypt, victory rested with the Persians, and when Nectanebus learned this, and saw that Pelusium was attacked in a systematic manner, he and his troops withdrew to Memphis ; the Persians advanced through the Delta, and captured Bubastis, and their march to Memphis was a triumphal progress rather than the march of an enemy upon the capital of Egypt. Fear seized Nectanebus when he heard of the approach of the Persians, and having gathered together all the money that he could conveniently carry, he fled from his troubles, some say to Ethiopia, and some say to Macedon, where according to Pseudo-Callisthenes he became the father of Alexander the Great. Nectanebus, during his reign of seventeen or eighteen years, obtained the reputation of being a devout worshipper of the gods, and a sorcerer. The mines

EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 65

in the valley of Hammamat were worked during his reign, and he added to and repaired many of the temples at Philae, Thebes, Edfu, Heliopolis, etc. With the flight of Nectanebus the history of Egypt as an independent country comes to an end.

Persian Rulers of Egypt.

B C

When Artaxerxes III., Ochus, became sole king of 3^0 Egypt, he emulated the barbarous acts of Cambyses ; the principal towns were looted and destroyed, the temples were Ochus

chrown, and their sanctuaries pillaged, the Apis bull was ^pters kuiu^and eaten by the king and his friends, and the ram of Mendes was slain. Ochus returned to Babylon with much spoil, and after a reign of twelve years was probably poisoned by Bagoas the Egyptian, who, it is said, thus avenged the slaughter of the Apis bull.

Arses, the youngest son of Ochus, next sat on the throne of Egypt, but in the third year of his reign he and his family were slain by Bagoas.

Arses was succeeded by Darius III., who narrowly escaped poisoning by the hand of Bagoas ; the plot was, however, discovered, and Darius freed himself from the traitor by causing him to drink poison, and he died. Darius was defeated Defeat of by Alexander the Great at Issus, and the Greeks marched on |^“s"s at Egypt and took possession of it without any difficulty.

Macedonians.

Alexander the Great founded the Alexandria near Rakoti, 332

Eg. ==> M c=^3 (1(1 ^ Rdqetit, Copt. p£.Kcrf”, and endeavoured

to make it the central market-place of the known world. He was tolerant of the Egyptian religion, and sacrificed to Amen, Alexan- the god of Libya, who greeted him as his son. After about a \xx^ d year spent in Egypt, Alexander set out on his expedition against Darius king of Persia. Having conquered all the east, and travelled nearly alone into China, he came back to Babylon, where he was poisoned at a banquet ; his body was brought in great state to his city Alexandria and was buried there.

B. M. F

66

FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT.

B.C. 305

286

Alexan- drian Library founded. Septuagint made.

247 222 205

182 170

117

8l

52

42

Death of Cleopatra.

Egypt be- comes a Roman Province.

Ptolemies.

Ptolemy I., Soter, son of Lagus, founded the Alexandrian Library.

Ptolemy II., Philadelphia, built the Pharos, founded Berenice on the Red Sea, and Arsinoe ; he employed Manetho to compile a history of Egypt and its gods from native autho- rities, and caused the Greek version of the Old Testament to be made.

Ptolemy III., Euergetes I.

Ptolemy IV., Philopator, founded the temple of Edfu.

Ptolemy V., Epiphanes.

Ptolemy VI., Eupator, died in this year.

Ptolemy VII., Philometor.

Ptolemy VIII., murdered by Physcon.

Ptolemy IX., Euergetes II. or Physcon, reigned conjointly with Ptolemy VII. (B.C. 170—165).

Ptolemy X., Soter II., Philometor II., or Lathyrus reigned conjointly with Cleopatra III. ; he was banished B.C. 106, and recalled B.C. 87.

Ptolemy XL, Alexander I., made co-regent. He was banished B.C. 89 and slain B.C. 87.

Ptolemy XII., Alexander II., is slain.

Ptolemy XIII., Neos Dionysos or Auletes, became king of Egypt ; he died B.C. 52.

Ptolemy XIV., Dionysos II., banished his co-regent Cleopatra VII., Caesar arrived in Egypt to support Cleopatra, and Ptolemy XIV. was drowned.

Ptolemy XV, brother of Cleopatra VII., appointed her co- regent ; he was murdered at her wish.

Ptolemy XVL, Caesarion, was named co-regent.

Antony ordered Cleopatra to appear before him, and was seduced by her charms; he killed himself, and Cleopatra died by the bite of an asp.

Romans. Caesar Augustus became master of the Roman Empire, and Cornelius Gallus the first prefect of Egypt ; under the third prefect, Aelius Gallus, Candace, Queen of the Ethiopians, invaded Egypt, but was defeated.

EGYPTIAN HISTORY. 67

A.D.

Tiberius. In his reign Germanicus went to Egypt, sailing 14 up the Nile from the city of Canopus to Thebes, where he visited the temples of Luxor and Karnak, and heard the priest read on the pylons the names of conquered nations which still exist on them by the score. Passing over to the other side of the river, Tacitus tells us (II., 61) that he saw the stone image of Memnon, which, when struck by the sun’s rays, gave out the sound of a human voice, and there is little Germani- doubt that he visited the Tombs of the Kings, the Ramesseum through6 S and the temples at Medinet Habu. He passed on to Syene, Egypt- where he visited the island of Elephantine, and either going up or coming down the river, he saw Lake Moeris and the Pyramids.

Caligula. 37

Claudius. 41

Nero. In his reign Christianity was first preached in 55

Egypt by Saint Mark. The Blemmyes made raids upon the ?^™yes

southern frontier of Egypt. Egypt.

Vespasian. Jerusalem destroyed, A.D. 70. 69

Domitian builds temples to Isis and Serapis at Rome. 82

Trajan. The Amnis Trajanus, or canal which joined the 98

Nile and Red Sea, re-opened.

Hadrian. He visited Egypt twice. 117

Marcus Aurelius. 161

Commodus. 180

Septimius Severus. 193

Caracalla visited Egypt, and caused a large number of 211 young men to be massacred in Alexandria.

Macrinus. 217

Elagabalus. 218

Decius. 249

Valerianus. 253

Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, invaded Egypt. 268

Aurelian. Zenobia dethroned A.D. 273. 270

Probus. 276

Diocletian. " Pompey’s Pillar" erected AD. 302. The 284 Copts date the era of the Martyrs from the day of Diocletian’s accession to the throne (August 29).

Constantine the Great. 324

F 2

68 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT.

A.D.

337 Constantius.

379 Theodosius I., the Great, proclaimed Christianity the

religion of his empire.

Byzantines.

395 Arcadius, Emperor of the East.

408 Theodosius II.

450 Marcianus. In this reign Silco invaded Egypt, with his

Nubian followers. 474 Zeno.

481 Anastasius.

527 Justinian.

610 Heraclius expelled the Persians from Egypt after they

had held it, under Chosroes, for ten years.

MUHAMMADANS.

638 ‘Amr ibn el-‘Asi conquers Egypt, and the country becomes

Arab con- a part of the Muhammadan empire for about nine hundred

quest of

Egypt. years.

1517 Selim L, of Constantinople, deposes Tuman Bey, and

Egypt becomes a Turkish Pashalik. 1798 Napoleon Bonaparte stormed Alexandria, battle of the

Pyramids, and French fleet destroyed off Abukir by the

English. 1801 The French compelled by the English to evacuate Egypt.

1805 Muhammad ‘Ali appointed Pasha of Egypt.

1848 Ibrahim Pasha.

1849 Death of Muhammad ‘Ali.

1854 Said Pasha. During his reign the Bulak Museum was

founded, and the excavation of the Suez Canal began.

1863 Ismail, son of Ibrahim Pasha, made Khedive. Suez

Canal opened, 1869.

1882 Massacre of Europeans at Alexandria, bombardment of

the town by the English fleet in July ; Egypt was occupied by English troops, and ‘Arabi Pasha defeated.

1885 Murder of Gordon, and abandonment of the Sudan.

1892 English troops continue to occupy Egypt.

EGYPTIAN HISTORY.

69

List of Egyptian Dynasties and the Dates assigned to them by egyptologists.

1

2

3

4

5

Dynasty.

From

Lepsius.

Champollion Figeac.

Marlette.

Wilkinson.

Brugsch.

I

Thinis…

• 3,892

5,867

5,004

2,320

4,400

II

Thinis…

• 3,639

5,615

4,751

2,300

4,133

III

Memphis

• 3,338

5,318

4,449

—

3,966

IV

Memphis

. 3,I24

5,I2i

4,235

—

3-766

V

Elephantine ..

. 2,840

4,673

3,951

—

3,566

VI

Memphis

• 2,744

4,425

3,703

—

3,300

VII

Memphis

. 2,592

4,222

3,5oo

—

3,IOO

VIII

Memphis

. 2,522

4,H7

3,5oo

—

—

IX

Heracleopolis

2,674

4,047

3,358

—

—

X

Heracleopolis

2,565

3,947

3,249

—

—

XI

Thebes

• 2,423

3,762

j 3,o6i

—

2,500

XII

Thebes

. 2,380

3,703

—

2,466

XIII

Thebes

. 2,136

3,417

2,851

—

2,233

XIV

Choi’s …

. 2,167

3,oo4

2,398

—

—

XV

(Shepherds) ..

. 2,101

2,520

)

1,830

—

XVI

(Shepherds) ..

1,842

2,270

\ 2,214

1,740

1,800

XVII

Thebes

. 1,684

2,082

1

1,651

—

XVIII

Thebes

• i,59i

1,822

1,703

i,575

1,700

XIX

Thebes

. i,443

i,473

1,462

1,269

1,400

XX

Thebes

. 1,269

1,279

1,288

1,170

1,200

XXI

{ Tanis ( Thebes

• J 1,091

1,101

1,110

1,068

I,IOO

XXII

Bubastis

. 961

971

980

981

966

XXIII

Tanis

. 787

851

810

908

766

XXIV

j Sais

( Ethiopia

’ J 729

762

721

812

733

XXV

Ethiopia

716

7i8

715

773

700

XXVI

Sais …

685

674

665

664

666

XXVII

Persia…

525

524

527

525

527

XXVIII

Sais

525

404

406

414

405

XXIX

Mendes

399

398

399

408

399

XXX

Sebennytos .

• 378

377

378

387

378

XXXI

Persia…

340

339

340

340

340

1 Kdnigsbuch, Berlin, 1858, Synoptische Tafeln, taf. 4-8.

2 UUnivers. Egypte Ancienne, Paris, 1839, p. 269.

3 Notice des Principaux Monuments du Musee a Boulaq, Paris, 1 869, p. 15.

4 The Ancient Egyptians, ed. Birch, 1878, Vol. I, p. 28 ff.

5 Egypt under the Pharaohs, ed. 1880, Vol. II, pp. 341-346.

70

FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT.

LIST OF NOME

NOME.

I. C^D

-as

4.1

,or

■A

9-X

io.

I2’ ^r I3’ ^

i4. =4-_a

T

15, j^eI^

Ta-kens Tes-Heru

Ten

Uast

Herui Aati

Sechem Abtu

Amsu

Uat’et Sut Tu-hef Atef-chent

Atef-peh

CAPITAL.

AJ®

f

or

or

O c±

0 1 n^

!•*

*J

= o

.a. n c=^^ -

m^

o ©

©

fc

^

@ Q

Ab

Tebt

Nexeb Sent

Uast Annu qemat

Qebt

Ta-en-tarert

Net

Abet

Apu

Tebt

Shas-hetep Nut-enth-bak Saut

Kes

Ml ©, or mi ©mi Chemennu

1 See Brugsch, Diet. Geog.> p. 1358, f. ; and Dumichen

LIST OF NOMES.

n

(UPPER EGYPT).

GREEK NAME. Elephantine Apollinopolis magna

Eileithyia Latopolis, Esneh

Thebes, or Hermonthis

Coptos

Tentyris

Diospolis parva Abydos

Panopolis

DEITY.

o\

MM

r^

ib;ji

=1

I

A-a

T

Hermopolis in Meyer, Geschichte des alten Aegyptensy p. 24, ff.

Chnemu HeruBehutet.

Nexeb.

Amen-Ra Menthu

Amsu

Het-Heru,

Aphroditopolis

¥

Het-Heru.

Hypselis

$M

Chnemu

Hieraconpolis

M

Heru,

Lycopolis, Asyut

u\a

Ap-uat

Cusae

E

Het-Heru,

Hathor

Het-Heru, Hathor

An-her

Amsu

Hathor

Horus

Tehuti, Thoth

72

FUNEREAL ARCH/EOLOGY OF EGYPT.

LIST OF NOMES

NOME.

.» U

20. 0

21.  Q_£) 
    

^7©

Meh-mahet

Sepet

Uab

Am-chent Am-peh Maten

CAPITAL. 5

©

C73

I

/WW\A

®

«^®

Hebenu

Ka-sa

Het-bennu

Pa-7nat’et

Suten-henen

Senaxent

Tep-ahet

LIST OF NOMES

NOME.

, 01

3-

4-

5- Hi

6. t^^Si

A neb-he t’ Ad

Ament Sepi-res

Sepi-meht

Ka-set

CAPITAL.

JTA

t"^

© 0 f\

^

Men-nefert Sechem

Nut-ent-Hapi Teqd

IP

Chasuut

1 In the western part of this nome was the Fayyum,

d^£3 t*-^.

LIST OF NOMES.

n

(UPPER EGYPT)— continued.

GREEK NAME,

DEO

T.

^

Hewi)

Kynonpolis

l\ MWM Jl

Id eS

Anpu,

Hipponus

f\ AVAAAAA Jt

Hd ©n

Anpu,

Oxyrhynchus

Pol

Sut

Heracleopolis Magna

•  1    u    l 
  

»i

Her-sefiu

Nilopolis (?)

6M

Chnemu

Aphroditopolis

&

ffet-Heru

Horus

Anubis

Anubis

(LOWER EGYPT).

GREEK NAME.

Memphis Letopolis Apis

DEITY.

Sais Choi’s

M

G1S

Heru

Horu

Het-Heru

Hathor

Amen-Rd

Nit

Amen-Rd

See J. de Rouge, Geog. Ancienne de la Basse Egypte, Paris, 1891.

74

FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT.

LIST OF NOMES

NOME.

7- wj

8. ^| 9- i

9. ^^

u. O^

12- ,S^^or *2P ©

15^

,, n

14

^> ©

‘5

16. V^=H} ~T©’-i

17

is. /*

■

20. “p^f

Nefer-Ament Nefer-Abet

Ati (or A net)

Ka-kam

Ka-hebes

Teb-neter

Heq-at Chent-abt

Tehuti

Char Behutet

Am-chent

Am-peh

Sept

c^©

CAPITAL.

/www

^ w

a

m^ o ©

0

s

1

en

1

StSV

df^^

/WWVA I /WW\A

I

101©

en

I

Sent-nefert Thekut

Pa-Ausar

Het-ta-herabt

Hebes-ka

Theb-netert

Annu

Tdnt

Pa-Tehuti Pa-ba-neb-Teitet Pa-chen-en- Anient

Pa-Bast

Pa-uat

Pekes

LIST OF NOMES.

75

(LOWER

EGYPT)-

-continued.

GREEK

NAME.

DEITY.

Metelis

tt-‘j

-?*

Sethroe (?)

14M

Atviu

Busiris

Ausar Osiris

Athribis

Ss(iih«^

Heru-chent-chathi

Kabasos

isa

Auset Isis

Sebennythos

Heliopolis Tanis

Hermopolis

Mendes Diospolis

Bubastis

Buto

Phakussa

jna

I www I i_J

IS L

An-her

Ra Heru

Tehuti

Ba-neb-Tettet Amen-Ra

Bast Uaf Sept

Horus

Thoth

LIST OF THE CARTOUCHES

OF THE PRINCIPAL

EGYPTIAN KINGS

The oval CZDI in which a name of a royal person is written, is called cartouche. The first oval contains the pre- nomen, and the second the name ; these are quite distinct from his titles. ^zhR suten net, placed before the prenomen, means " King of the North and South,” and (gs^ se Rd means H Son of the Sun." Other common titles are ^z? e=^=’ neb tauiy " lord of two lands," ^ Horus, ^ « the golden Horus," ^ " lord of diadems," ^ U=4 " mighty bull," | T " beautiful god/’ etc., etc. The title Pharaoh HiT)5 finds

per da, “great house.” names were very sim-

lts origin in ^,3. or nn> or In the early dynasties kings’ pie in form, and consisted

C"3

often of the prenomen

only. In addition to the pre- ^ nomen and name a king often had what is termed a “banner” name, which was written in a rectangular enclosure ; e.g. : —

Hem ka ne^t ur peh peh, u Horus, mighty bull, great of valour," formed the " banner " name of

Amenophis II. ; f 0 <>^=> m I 1 da ^eperu Rd was

<a<a

his prenomen ; and

W>

" men-

hetep neter heq An?iu, " Amenophis, god, prince of Heliopolis," was his name. Each prenomen and

name had a meaning, but many of these are very difficult

to translate.

CARTOUCHES OF EGYPTIAN KINGS.

77

Dynasty* I., fro^

i Thinis, b.c. 4400.

Mena.

Hesep-ti.

Teta.

Mer-ba-pen.

3. m pui]

Ate0.

■ K CJJ

•Semen -Ptah.

4. m o\j

Ata.

Qebh.

]

Dynasty II., from Thinis, b.c. 4133.

Neter-baiu.

Ka-kau.

n

Ba-en-neter.

Uat’-nes.

D

Senta.

^> I www ]

Per -ab- sen.

Nefer-ka-Ra.t

Nefer-ka-seker.

*»(XJvEl

Het’efa.

• Manetho’s grouping of the kings into dynasties is only used here for con- venience : the ancient Egyptians had no such division.

t Though O Ra is generally placed first in the cartouche, t is generally to be read last.

7%

FUNEREAL ARCH/EOLOGY OF EGYPT.

Dynasty III., from Memphis, b.c. 3966.

• m OHD

T’at’ai.

, m (ggj

Neb-ka.

Ser.

■man

Teta.

»0=5D

Setes.

» K QElD

Serteta.

t K CHZD

Ahtes.

Neb-ka-Ra.

Nefer-ka-Ra, son of the Sun,

Huni.

Dynasty IV., from Memphis, b.c. 3766.

e* d V LI

.7. jg Cii^U

Seneferu.

xufu. (Cheops.)

xa-f-Ra. (Chephren.)

30. m CoeaHJr1!

Men-kau-Ra.

(Mycerinus.)

31-

]

Tet-f-Ra. Shepses-ka-f.

33

■Kl’MiUl

Sebek-ka-Ra.

34. M (Tki%

I-em-hetep.

CARTOUCHES OF EGYPTIAN KINGS. 79

Dynasty V., from Elephantine, b.c. 3366.

Usr-ka-f. Sah u-Ra.

Nefer-ka-ari-Ra, son of the Sun, Kakaa.

*«GTjEJ v (3EyJ

Nefer-f-Ra, son of the Sun, Shepses-ka-Ra. Nefer-%a-Ra, son of the Sun, Heru-a-ka-u.

A d V AAAAM I I ^/J _/_T V^ I /VWVAA ^/j

Usr-en-Ra, son of the Sun, An.

*• K (Ss°Wl

Men-kau-Heru.

… a C^Tul * GDrJD

Tet-ka Ra, son of the Sun, Assa.

43. £g C^iP] Unis

Dynasty VI., from Memphis, b.c. 3266.

44 $8 CED gJCiOOOl

Teta or Teta-mer-en-Ptah.

(Teta beloved of Ptah.)

8o

FUNEREAL ARCH/EOLOGY OF EGYPT.

Usr-ka-Ra, son of the Sun, Ati.

46.^r4j] ^ (Til

Meri-Ra, son of the Sun, Pepi (I.).

Mer-en-Ra, son of the Sun, Heru-em-sa-f.

48. m (Jfuj

m

Nefer-ka-Ra, son of the Sun, Pepi (II.).

Ra-mer-en-se (?)-em-sa-f

Neter-ka-Ra.

s..jgF3ui « cgxa

Men-ka-Ra, son of the Sun,

Netaqerti. (Nitocris.)

Dynasties VII. and VIII., from Memphis; Dynasties

IX. AND X., FROM HERACLEOPOLIS, B.C. 3IOO.

52

m m

m

Civ]

Nefer-ka.

53

Nefer-seh ….

54

C.iJ&J

Ab.

55

( y ? m]

Nefer-kau-Ra

56

4Sk £3,

%ar#i.

57

Cik3

Nefer-ka-Ra.

58

(GJuH]

Nefer-ka-Ra-Nebi.

59

(lUo^f)

Tet-ka-Ra-maa

CARTOUCHES OF EGYPTIAN KINGS.

-MGM5] •-tfC^zn

Nefer-ka-Ra-xentu.

Mer-en-Heru.

… m (=jn) » & (Z-lu]

Senefer-ka.

S3, m c^uj

Ka-en-Ra.

Nefer -ka-Ra-t-rer-l(P).

• m CMy J

Nefer-ka-Heru.

«■ » (!Kfl]

Nefer - ka - Ra - Pepi - senb.

Se-nefer-ka-Ra.

Nefer-ka-Ra-annu.*

Nefer-kau-J

A

Nefer-kau-Heru.

• % Qtr ]

Nefer -ka-ari-Ra.

Dynasty XL, from Thebes.

71. a 
    

a

/WWV\ ^v

^

Erpaf Antef.

Men-[tu-hetep].

Antef.

» & qzi

Antef.

75-

Antef (?).

*1 1 Gup

Neter nefer, Antef.

Beautiful god, Antef.

• After this name the tablet of Abydos had ^^ ( ® V\ Vl 1

…. kau-Ra

t Erpa, usually translated “hereditary prince” or “duke,” is one of the oldest titles of nobility in Egypt.

B. M, G

82

77-

FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT

Son of the Sun

Antef.

Son of the Sun

I

8b. & rQ

’ J2 78. jg (j^]

■of the x ~~ Sun An-aa.

Anti

MID s CE3

0 F^l

I)

Nub-^eper-Ra, son of the Sun, Antuf.

Aha-Heru-Ra-apu-maat, son of the Sun, Antuf-aa.

s-m(mS2j » CI

Aha-renpit-Ra-aput-maat, son of the Sun, Antef aa.

82

fi ra #

El * CUG

Tet-Ra-her-her-maat, son of the Sun,

Antef.

S3. gg Qju]

Senefer-ka-Ra.

84. I

Ra

85. j^g (^©“1 (1 ^|

Usr-en-Ra.

8, m (J^EU

Neb-nem-Ra.

*-K ¥ (Jog]

Son of the Sun, Menflu-hetep (I.).

• i* OSS]

Se-Ra-Men0-hetep (II.). Neb-hetep-Ra, son of the Sun, Men0-hetep (III.).

90. m f °

^

c

/WWA ^ G ^yj

Neb-taiu-Ra, son of the Sun, Menfl-hetep (IV.)

CARTOUCHES OF EGYPTIAN KINGS. 83

EED . » CSS]

Neb-xeru-Ra, son of the Sun, Men0-hetep (V.).

9, m cgju]

Se-anx-ka-Ra.

Dynasty XII., from Thebes, e.c. 2466.

Sehetep-ab-Ra, son of the Sun, Amen -em-hat (I.).

%eper-ka-Ra, son of the Sun, Usertsen (I.).

„ K cwg] s CES5]

Nub-kau-Ra, son of the Sun, Amen -em -hat (II.). xeper-xa-Ra, son of the Sun, Usertsen (II.).

-HCE5EI ¥ (1PT~1

xa-kau-Ra, son of the Sun, Usertsen (III.).

Maat-en-Ra, son of the Sun, Amen -em -.hat : (III.).

Maa-xeru-Ra, son of the Sun, Amen- em -hat (IV.).

^O^nl]

Sebek • neferu - Ra.

G 2

34

FUNFREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT.

Dynasty XIII-, b.c. 2233.

X’U-taiu-Ra. xerp-ka-Ra.

°3. j? da

. . em -hat.

4. m Rg^]

Sehetep-ab-Ra.

• k (Ell

Auf-na.

<«m@3I s (awagfl

Seanx-ab-Ra, son of the Sun, Ameni-Antef-Amen-em-hat.

7- ^ (e|°u]

Semen -ka-Ra.

-8. ^ rasg

Sehetep-ab-Ra.

ka.

-3- IK G

Net’em-ab-Ra.

in

Sebek-[hete]p-Ra.

M(=gg

Ren

Set’ef . . . . Ra.

D

Ra-xerp(?)-xu-taiu Sebek-hetep (I.).

] 1

5 i| RgVtuH $?

Semenx-ka-Ra, son of the Sun, Mer-menfitu

6 K C5MS] ¥ CBM1]

xerp-seuat’-taiu-Ra, son of the Sun, Sebek-hetep (II.)

3

CARTOUCHES OF EGYPTIAN KINGS.

O xa-seshesh-Ra, son of the Sun, Nefer-hetep.

xa-seshesh-Ra, son ol

• K (3EED

35

11

12

Ra-het . . . . se, son of the Sun, Het-Heru-se.

, m(^n ¥ (MM

xa-nefer-Ra, son of the Sun, Sebek-hetep (III.).

OQ

o n

]

(M^j

xa-hetep-Ra, son of the Sun, Sebek-hetep (IV.).

tf OHMasM

Uah-ab-Ra-aa-ab.

xaa-xeru-Ra. Neb-f-a(?) a-mer-Ra.

MC°W

I25-

& GfH

Nefer ab-Ra.

nj

xa-anx-Ra, son of the Sun, Sebek-hetep (V.).

Mer-xerp-Ra.

Men-xau-Ra, son of the Sun, Anab.

86

FUNEREAL ARCH/EOLOGY OF EGYPT.

«• m em ¥ c

<$-£*.

838S-

a

xerp-uat-xau-Ra, son of the Sun, Sebek-em-sa-f (I.).

c-

a

xerp-seset-taiu-Ra, son of the Sun, Sebek-em-sa-f (II. ).

,30. m SEp| «*■ 81 (oii^isi

Sesusr-taiu-Ra, xerP(?)-Uast-Ra.

.. m farm g ss

xerp-uah-xa-Ra, son of the Sun, Ra-hetep.

Dynasty XIV.

■ Ra, son of the Sun, Ai.

Mer-nefer-Ra, son of the Sun,

Mer-hetep-Ra, son of the Sun,

Ana.

‘35- {I (ePfJCMSl

Seanxensehtu-Ra.

Mer-xerp-Ra-an-ren.

37. {£ (oPfe]

Seuat’-en-Ra.

38. % (o^U]

xa-ka-Ra.

Ka-meri-Ra. neter nefer. Mer-kau-Ra.

42. ^     10 
    

Ck £* V

Seheb-Ra.

n

Mer-t’efa-Ra.

Sta-ka-Ra.

31 ■«■ M g^MsJ

Neb-t’efa-Ra Ra (sic).

CARTOUCHES OF EGYPTIAN KINGS.

87

Uben-Ra.

45-

m{o^i

1 ,

Her-ab-Ra.

M(0^P

WWW \

lllj

Neb-sen

-Ra.

.47. gg r>ptM

Seuah-en-Ra.

‘48- M RTf^l

Se^eper-en-Ra. Tet-xeru-Ra.

Dynasty XV., “Shepherd Kings.”

Aa- peh -peh -Set, son of the Sun, Nub-Set (?).

5i-

Abeh (?) - en - x^pes.

. Banan.

Apepa. Dynasty XVI, “Shepherd Kings.’

» 1 1 GEJu ¥

Neter nefer Aa-ab-taiu-Ra, son of the Sun, Beautiful god.

D /O

Apepa.

1 T ( JL. A ^i

I 0 ___ - fl /WWW ^

ancient authors tell us that Men-kau-Ra, or Mycerinus, was Pyramid buried in this pyramid, but Manetho states that Nitocris, a cerinus. queen of the Vlth dynasty, was the builder. There can be, however, but little doubt that it was built by Mycerinus, for the sarcophagus and the remains of the inscribed coffin of this king were found in one of its chambers by Howard Vyse in 1837. The sarcophagus, which measured 8 x 3 x 2\ feet, was lost through the wreck of the ship in which it was sent to England, but the venerable fragments of the coffin are preserved in the British Museum, and form one of the most valuable objects in the famous collection of that institution. The formula on it is one which is found upon coffins down to the latest period, but as the date of Mycerinus is known, it is possible to draw some interesting and valuable conclusions from the fact that it is found upon his coffin. It proves that as far back as 3,600 years before Christ the Egyptian religion was established on a firm base, that the doctrine of immortality was already deeply rooted in the human mind. The art of preserving the human body by embalming was also well understood and generally practised at that early date.

The pyramid of Men-kau-Ra, like that of Chephren, is Pyramid built upon a rock with a sloping surface ; the inequality of cerinus. the surface in this case has been made level by building up courses of large blocks of stones. Around the lower part the remains of the old granite covering are visible to a depth of B. M. z

33$ FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGVrT.

from 30 to 40 feet. It is unfortunate that this pyramid has been so much damaged ; its injuries, however, enable the visitor to see exactly how it was built, and it may be concluded that the pyramids of Cheops and Chephren were built in the same manner. The length of each side at the base is about 350 feet, and its height is variously given as 210 and 215 feet. The entrance is on the north side, about thirteen feet above the ground, and a descending corridor about 104 feet long, passing through an ante-chamber, having a series of three granite doors, leads into one chamber about 44 feet long. In this chamber is a shaft which leads down to the granite-lined chamber about 20 feet below, in which were found the sarcophagus and wooden coffin of Mycerinus, and the remains of a human body. It is thought that, in spite of the body of Mycerinus being buried in this pyramid, it was left unfinished at the death of this king, and that a succeeding ruler of Egypt finished the pyramid and made a second chamber to hold his or her body. At a short distance to the east of this pyramid are the ruins of a temple which was probably used in connexion with the rites performed in honour of the dead king. In A.D. 1196 a deliberate and systematic attempt was made to destroy this pyramid by the command of the Muhammadan ruler of Egypt. The account of the character of Mycerinus and of his pyramid as given by Herodotus is as follows: “They said that after him, Mycerinus,1. son of Cheops, reigned over Egypt ; that the conduct of his father was displeasing to him ; and that he opened the temples, and permitted the people, who were worn down to the last extremity, to return to their employments, and to sacrifices ; and that he made the most Pyramid jusj- decisions of all their kings. On this account, of all the

of My- J r

cerinus. kings that ever reigned in Egypt, they praised him most, for he both judged well in other respects, and moreover, when any man complained of his decision, he used to make him some present out of his own treasury and pacify his anger.

This king also left a pyramid much less than that of

his father, being on each side 20 feet short of three plethra ; it is quadrangular, and built half way up of

1 Bk. ii. 129, 134.

THE PYRAMIDS OF ABU ROASH AND ABUSIR 339

Ethiopian stone. Some of the Grecians erroneously say that this pyramid is the work of the courtesan Rhodopis ; but they evidently appear to me ignorant who Rhodopis was ; for they would not else have attributed to her the building such a pyramid, on which, so to speak, numberless thousands of talents were expended ; besides, Rhodopis flourished in the reign of Amasis, and not at this time ; for she was very many years later than those kings who left these pyramids.’ (Cary’s translation.)

In one of the three small pyramids near that of Mycerinus the name of this king is painted on the ceiling.

The Pyramids of Abu Roash.

These pyramids lie about six miles north of the Pyramids of Gizeh, and are thought to be older than they. Nothing remains of one except five or six courses of stone, which show that the length of each side at the base was about 350 feet, and a passage about 160 feet long leading down to a subterranean chamber about 43 feet long. A pile of stones close by marks the site of another pyramid ; the others have disappeared. Of the age of these pyramids nothing certain is known. The remains of a causeway about a mile long leading to them are still visible.

The Pyramids of Abu sir.

These pyramids, originally fourteen in number, were Other built by kings of the Vth dynasty, but only four of them are 5aS Vth now standing, probably because of the poorness of the dynasty, workmanship and the careless way in which they were put together. The most northerly pyramid was built by

C

0% % ^\ 1 Sahu-Ra, the second king of the Vth

dynasty, B.C. 3333 ; its actual height is about 120 feet, and the length of each side at the base about 220 feet. The blocks of stone in the sepulchral chamber are exceptionally large. Sahu-Ra made war in the peninsula of Sinai, he

z 2

340 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT.

founded a town near Esneh, and he built a temple to Scchet at Memphis.

The pyramid to the south of that of Sahu-Ra was built

by GSjE13V( BD “usr-m-Rd’ son °f the

Sun, An” This king, like Sahu-Ra, also made war in Sinai. The largest of these four pyramids is now about 165 feet ^ high and 330 feet square ; the name of its builder is unknown. Abusir is the Busiris of Pliny.

The Step Pyramid of Sakkarah.

This pyramid is generally thought to have been built by the fourth king of the 1st dynasty (called Uenephes by

Manetho, and \c± ^L J Ata in the tablet of Abydos), who

is said to have built a pyramid at Kochome (i.e., Ka-Kam) near Sakkarah. Though the date of this pyramid is not known accurately, it is probably right to assume that it is The oldest older than the pyramids of Gizeh. The door which led into pyramid. t^Q pyramid was inscribed with the name of a king called Ra-nub, and M. Mariette found the same name on one of the stelae in the Serapeum. The steps of the pyramid are six in number, and are about 38, 36, 34^, 32, 31 and 29I feet in height ; the width of each step is from six to seven feet. The lengths of the sides at the base are : north and south 352 feet, east and west 396 feet, and the actual height is 197 feet. In shape this pyramid is oblong, and its sides do not exactly face the cardinal points. The arrangement of the chambers inside this pyramid is quite peculiar to itself.

The Pyramid of Unas MgaJlfl better known as

" Mastabat el-Far’un,” .., " Pharaoh’s Mastaba,” called in

Egyptian Nefer-as-u, lies to the south-east of the Step

Pyramid, and was reopened and cleared out in 1881 by M.

Maspero, at the expense of Messrs. Thomas Cook and Son.

Its original height was about 62 feet, and the length of each

Pyramids sjde at the base 220 feet. Owing to the broken blocks

with of sand which lie round about it, Vyse was unable to

funereal gjve exacj- measurements. Several attempts had been

THE STEP PYRAMID OF SAKKaRAH. 34 1

made to break into it, and one of the Arabs who took part in one of these attempts, " Ahmed the Carpenter,” seems to have left his name inside one of the chambers in red ink. It is probable that he is the same man who opened the Great Pyramid at Gizeh, A.D. 820. A black basalt sarcophagus, from which the cover had been dragged off, an arm, a shin bone, and some ribs and fragments of the skull from the mummy of Unas were found in the sarcophagus chamber. The walls of the two largest chambers and two of the corridors are inscribed with ritual texts and prayers of a very interesting character. Unas, the last king of the Vth dynasty, reigned about thirty years. The Mastabat el-Far’un was thought by Mariette to be the tomb of Unas, but some scholars thought that the " blunted pyramid" at Dahshur was his tomb, because his name was written upon the top of it.

The Pyramid of Teta C ^ J\ 1 , called in Egyptian

♦Tet-asu, lies to the north-east of the Step Pyramid, and was opened in 1881. The Arabs call it the " Prison Pyramid," because local tradition says that it is built near the ruins of the prison where Joseph the patriarch was confined. Its actual height is about 59 feet ; the length of its sides at the base is 210 feet, and the platform at the top is about 50 feet. The arrangement of the chambers and passages and the plan of construction followed is almost identical with that of the pyramid of Unas. This pyramid was broken into in ancient days, and two of the walls of the sarcophagus chamber have literally been smashed to pieces by the hammer blows of those who expected to find treasure inside them. The inscriptions, painted in green upon the walls, have the same subject matter as those inscribed upon the walls of the chambers of the pyramid of Unas. According to Manetho, Teta, the first king of the Vlth dynasty, reigned about fifty years, and was murdered by one of his guards.

The Pyramid of Pepi L, or (^jjpj][ “^ ( n All " R5” meri, son of the Sun, Pepi," lies to the south-east of the

342 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT.

Step Pyramid, and forms one of the central group of pyramids at Sakkarah, where it is called the Pyramid of Shekh Abu Mansur; it was opened in 1880. Its actual height is about 40 feet, and the length of the sides at the base is about 250 feet ; the arrangement of the chambers, etc., inside is the same as in the pyramids of Unas and Teta, but the ornamentation is slightly different. It is the worst preserved of these pyramids, and has suffered most at the hands of the spoilers, probably because having been constructed with stones which were taken from tombs ancient already in those days, instead of stones fresh from the quarry, it was more easily injured. The granite sarcophagus was broken to take out the mummy, fragments of which were found lying about on the ground ; the cover too, smashed in pieces, lay on the ground close by. A small rose granite box, containing alabaster jars, was also found in the sarcophagus chamber. The inscriptions are, like those inscribed on the walls of the pyramids of Unas and Teta, of a religious nature ; some scholars see in them evidence that the pyramid was usurped by another Pepi, who lived at a much later period than the Vlth dynasty. The pyramid of Pepi I., the second king of the Vlth dynasty, who reigned, according to Manetho, fifty-three years, was called in Egyptian by the same name as Memphis, i.e., Men-nefer, and numerous priests were attached to its service.

The Pyramids of Dahshur. The These pyramids, four of stone and two of brick, lie about

Pymmfd three and a half miles to the south of Ma?tabat el-Far’un. The largest stone pyramid is about 326 feet high, and the length of each side at the base is about 700 feet ; beneath it are three subterranean chambers. The second stone pyramid is about 321 feet high, and the length of its sides at the base is 620 feet ; it is usually called the " Blunted Pyramid," because the lowest parts of its sides are built at one angle, and the completing parts at another. The larger of the two brick pyramids is about 90 feet high, and the length of the sides at the base is about 350 feet ; the smaller

TOMBS OF THE THEBAN EMPIRE. 343

is about 156 feet high, and the length of its sides at the base is about 343 feet.

The Pyramid of Medum.

This pyramid, called by the Arabs El-Haram el-Kaddaby Tombs of or " the False Pyramid," is probably so named because it is Middle unlike any of the other pyramids known to them ; it is said ^mpt1-re,

to have been built by Seneferu Qjj^^l, the first king inPlan-

of the IVth dynasty, but there is no indisputable evidence that he was the builder. The pyramid is about 1 1 5 feet high, and consists of three stages : the first is 70, the second 20, and the third about 25 feet high. The stone for this building was brought from the Mokattam hills, but it seems never to have been finished ; as in all other pyramids, the entrance is on the north side. When opened in modern times the sarco- phagus chamber was found empty, and it would seem that this pyramid had been entered and rifled in ancient days.

Tombs of the Tiieban Empire.

Egyptian tombs belonging to a period subsequent to the mastabas and pyramids, i.e., about the Xllth dynasty, usually have the three characteristic parts of these forms of tomb, viz., the chapel, the passage to the sarcophagus chamber, and the sarcophagus chamber itself excavated in the solid rock ; sometimes, however, the chapel or chamber in which the relatives of the deceased assembled from time to time, is above ground and separate from the tomb, as in the case of the pyramid. Tombs having the chapel separate are the oldest, and the best examples are found at Abydos.1 On a brick base about 50 feet by 35 feet, and four or five feet high, rose a pyramid to a height of about 30 feet ; theo- retically such a tomb was supposed to consist of chapel,

1 Abydos etant surtout une necropole du Moyen Empire, c’est la petite pyramide qui y domine. Des centaines de ces monuments, disposes sans ordre, herissaient la necropole et devaient lui donner un aspect pittoresque bien different de l’aspect des necropoles d’un autre temps. Mariette, Abydos, torn. II. Paris, 1880, p. 39.

344

FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT.

Tombs at Abydos.

Tombs at Beni- Hasan.

Tombs at

Aswan.

passage and pit, but at Abydos, owing to the friable nature of the rock, these do not exist, and the mummy was laid either in the ground between the foundations, or in the masonry itself, or in a chamber which projected from the building and formed a part of it, or in a chamber beneath. This class of tomb is common both at Thebes and Abydos. Tombs hewn entirely out of the solid rock were used at all periods, and the best examples of these are found in the mountains behind Asyut, at Beni-Hasan, at Thebes, and at Aswan. The tombs at Beni-Hasan are about fifteen in number, and they all belong to the Xllth dynasty ; they have preserved the chief characteristics of the mastabas at Sakkarah, that is to say, they consist of a chamber and a shaft leading down to a corridor, which ends in the chamber containing the sarco- phagus and the mummy. The tombs rise tier above tier, and follow the course of the best layers of stone ; the most important here are those of Ameni and Chnemu-hetep, which are remarkable for possessing columns somewhat resembling those subsequently called Doric, hewn out of the solid rock. The columns inside the tomb have sixteen sides. The bold headland which rises up in the low range of hills which faces the whole of the island of Elephantine, just opposite to the modern town of Aswan, has been found to be literally honeycombed with tombs, tier above tier, of various epochs. In ancient days there was down at the water’s edge a massive stone quay, from which a broad, fine double stair- case, cut in the living rock, ascended to a layer of firm rock about 1 50 feet higher. At Thebes and at Beni-Hasan, where such staircases must have existed, they have been destroyed, and only the traces remain to show that they ever existed. At Aswan it is quite different, for the whole of this remark- able staircase is intact. It begins at the bottom of the slope, well above the highest point reached by the waters of the Nile during the inundation, and following the outward curve of the hill, ends in a platform in front of the highest tombs. Between each set of steps which form the staircase is a smooth slope, up which the coffins and sarcophagi were drawn to the tomb by the men who walked up the steps at each side. At the bottom of the staircase the steps are only a few inches

TOMBS OF THE THEBAN EMPIRE. 345

deep, but towards the top they are more than a foot. On each side of the staircase is a wall which appears to be of later date than the staircase itself, and about one-third of the way up there is a break in each wall, which appears to be a specially constructed opening leading to passages on the right and left respectively. The walls probably do not belong to the period of the uppermost tier of tombs, and appear to have been made during the rule of the Greeks or Romans. In the hill of the tombs at Aswan there are three distinct Tombs of layers of stone which have been chosen by the ancient dynasty at Egyptians for the purpose of excavating tombs. The finest Asw*n- and thickest layer is at the top, and this was chosen princi- pally by the architects of the Vlth dynasty for the sepulchres of the governors of Elephantine. The tombs here belong to the Vlth and Xllth dynasties, and of the former period the most interesting is that of Sabben, which is situated at the top of the staircase. Sabben was an official who lived in the

time of Pepi II., whose cartouche ( O J U J Nefer-ka-Ra is

found on the right hand side of the doorway. The entrance to this tomb is made through a rectangular opening, in which is a small doorway about one-third of the height of the open- ing, that is to say through a door within a door. The walls inside were covered with a thin layer of plaster, and upon them were painted scenes in the life of the man who was buried there. Of the Xllth dynasty tombs, the most interesting Tombs of is that of Se-renput, in the front of which there originally dynasty at stood a portico. The scarped rock was ornamented with Aswan. inscriptions, rows of cattle, etc., etc., and passing through the doorway, a chamber or chapel having four rectangular pillars was reached. A passage, in the sides of which were niches having figures in them, leads to a beautifully painted shrine in which was a black granite seated figure of the deceased ; thus the serdab and the stele of the mastaba became united. On the right hand side was a tunnel, which, winding as it descended, led to the sarcophagus chamber which was situated exactly under the shrine containing the figure of the deceased. Se-renput lived in the time of Usertsen I., and was an officer in the service of this king when he marched

346

FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT.

Tombs of the Xllth and XVIIIth

dynasties similar in plan.

Biban el-Muluk.

into Ethiopia ; thus the date of the tomb is well known.1 Like the tombs of the Vlth dynasty the walls inside were covered with a layer of plaster upon which scenes and inscrip- tions were painted.

During the XVIIIth dynasty tombs on the plan of the rock-hewn tombs of the Xllth dynasty were commonly built, but the inscriptions, which in ancient days were brief, now become very long, and the whole tomb is filled with beauti- fully painted scenes representing every art and trade, every agricultural labour, and every event in the life of the deceased. The biography of the deceased is given at great length; if a soldier, the military expeditions in which he took part are carefully depicted, and appropriate hieroglyphic descriptions are appended ; the tribute brought to the king from the various countries is depicted with the most careful attention to the slightest detail of colour and form. The mummy chamber was made exactly under the chapel, but the position of the pit which led to it varied. Under the XVIIIth and XlXth dynasties the tombs of kings and private persons possessed a size and magnificence which they never attained either before or since. The finest specimens of these periods are the famous Tombs of the Kings which are hewn in the living rock in the eastern and western valleys at Thebes; those in the latter valley belong to the XVIIIth dynasty, and those in the former belong to the XlXth dynasty. The royal tombs here consist of long inclined planes, with chambers at intervals, receding into the mountains ; according to Strabo these tombs were forty in number, but at the time of the death of M. Mariette, only about twenty-five were known. The tomb which we may consider to have been the model during the palmy days of the XVIIIth and XlXth dynasties, is that of Seti I. ; the walls of the staircases and chambers are covered with inscriptions and scenes from the " Book of being in the

1 For a full account of this tomb, see my paper in Proc. Soc. Bib. Arch., November, 1887, p. 33 ff. A tomb of great importance was discovered at Aswan in 1892 by Signor E. Schiaparelli, who published the hieroglyphic text with a commentary in his valuable paper Una Tomba Egiziana Inedita delict Via Dinastia, Roma, 1892.

TOMBS OF THE THUBAN EMPIRE. 347

Underworld," and their excellence and beauty is such that they cannot be too highly praised. Under this king, Egyptian funereal art seems to have been at its culminating point, for neither sculptor nor painter appears to have produced anything so fine after this date. The tomb is The tomb entered by means of two flights of steps, at the bottom of which is a passage terminating in a small chamber. Beyond this are two halls having four and two pillars respectively, and to the left are the passages and small chambers which lead to the large six-pillared hall and to the vaulted chamber in which stood the sarcophagus of Seti I. Here also is an inclined plane which descends into the mountain for a considerable distance ; from the level of the ground to the bottom of this incline the depth is about 150 feet ; the length of the tomb is nearly 500 feet. The designs on the walls were first sketched in outline in red, and the alterations by the master designer or artist were made in black ; this tomb was never finished. Each chamber fn this tomb has its peculiar ornamentation, and there is little doubt that each chamber had its peculiar furniture ; it is thought that many articles of furniture, pieces of armour, weapons, etc., etc., were broken intentionally when they were placed in the tomb.1 Of the tombs belonging to the period between the XXth and the XXVIth dynasty, nothing need be said, for they call for no special notice ; in the XXVIth dynasty, however, the renaissance of Egyptian Therenais- art naturally showed itself in the tombs of the period, and in sance* some few instances an attempt was made to reproduce tombs after the plan and with the elegance of those of the XlXth dynasty. It must be noticed that the inscriptions on the walls are of a funereal character, and consist usually of a series of chapters of the Book of the Dead.

That the tombs described above are those of wealthy people goes without saying ; it now remains to refer to the tombs of the extremely poor. They were sometimes buried in the crevices of the rocks, and at other times in the desert, either near the great necropolis of the town or in

1 On les tuait de la sorte afin que leur ame allat servir l’ame de l’homme dans l’autre montle. Maspero, U Archeologie Egyptienne> p. 159.

343

FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT.

The tombs of the poor.

Graeco- Ronian tombs.

Egyptian tombs used by Christian monks.

solitary places. A cave or hollow in the mountains afforded a place of sepulture unto many, and numerous rock caves exist in the mountains to the west of Thebes and other places, where the mass of decayed mummies and bones is several feet deep, and where skulls and skeletons, some with their skins shrivelled upon them, and others with bare bones, line the sides up to the ceiling. Sometimes pits were dug as common graves for the whole town, and sometimes the pit and passage of a forsaken tomb served to accom- modate hundreds of bodies. The absence of valuable fur- niture and ornaments rendered the bodies of the poor of no account to the pillager of tombs, and the inaccessible situation of the places where they were buried made it un- likely that they would be disturbed that others might be put in their places. The funereal furniture of the poor consisted of very little more than what they wore day by day, and, provided they were protected by a few amulets and figures of the gods in fai’ence to guard them against the attacks of evil-disposed demons, and by a scarab, the emblem of the resurrection and the new life, they probably laid down the burden of this life with as firm a hope in the mercy of Osiris as did the rich man in the mastaba or pyramid.

Under the Ptolemies and the Roman Emperors the arrangement of the tombs changes greatly ; the outer chapel or chamber disappears entirely, and the character of everything appertaining to the service of the tomb shows that a great change has taken place in the religious views of the people, for although ancient forms and obser- vances are kept up, it is clear that the spirit which gave them life has been forgotten.

In the early centuries of the Christian era the tombs in the mountains of Egypt formed dwelling-places for a number of monks and ascetics, and it would seem that the statues and other objects in them suffered at their hands. An instance of the use of a rock-hewn tomb by Pisentios, Bishop of Coptos, is made known to us by an encomium on this saint by his disciple John.1 The tomb in which

1 For the Coptic text and a French translation, see Amelineau, Etude stir le Christianisme in Egypte au Septieme Sifrle, Paris, 1887.

EGYPTIAN WRITING MATERIALS. 349

Pisentios lived was rectangular in shape, and was fifty-two feet wide ; it had six pillars and contained a large number of mummies. The coffins were very large and profusely de- corated, and one of the mummies was clothed in silk, and his fingers and toes were mummified separately ; the names of those buried there were written on a small parchment roll (ft OYXOJULA.piort it XU3JUL JUL JULeJUlftp£.rtorT). Pisentios conversed with one of the mummies, who begged the saint to pray for his forgiveness ; when Pisentios had promised him that Christ would have mercy upon him, the mummy lay down in his coffin again.

Egyptian Writing Materials.

The writing materials chiefly used by the ancient Egyptians consisted of papyrus, palette, reeds, and colours.

The papyrus was called s^^*^^ tkuf, # (jlj^X

kai, (lc^> x <w dtek, etc., and was made from the byblus

hieraticus, or Cyperus papyrus ‘, which grew in the marshes and pools near the Nile. The height of the plant was from twelve to fifteen feet, and the largest diameter of its triangular stalk was about four or six inches. The roots were used for fire- wood, parts of the plant were eaten, and other and coarser parts were made into paper, boats, ropes, mats, etc., etc. It will be remembered that the boat in which Isis set out to seek for Osiris was made of papyrus,1 and the " ark of bulrushes"2 in which Moses was laid was probably made of the same material. When it was intended to make paper from the Prepara- plant, the outer rind was removed, and the stalk was divided tlon of

r papyrus

with a flat needle into layers. These layers, the length of for writing which depended upon the width of the roll to be made, and purposes* the width upon the thickness of the stalk of the plant from which they were taken, were then laid upon a table, side by side, and upon these another series of layers was laid in a horizontal direction, and a thin solution of gum was then run between them ; the two series of layers thus united were

1 Plutarch, De hide et Osiride, Squire’s translation, p. 22. a Exodus ii. 3.

350 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT.

pressed and afterwards dried. It is clear that by joining a number of such sheets of papyrus together, a roll of almost any length could be made. The quality of the papyrus depended entirely upon the class of plant used in its manu- facture. The colour of the papyri that have come down to us varies greatly, from a rich brown to a whitish-grey ; the texture of some is exceedingly coarse, and of others fine and silky. The width of papyri varies from six to seventeen inches, and the longest papyrus known (Harris, No. I, B.M. 9999) measures 135 feet in length. The finest hiero- glyphic papyri of the Book of the Dead are about fifteen inches in width, and when they contain a tolerably full Dimen- number of chapters, are from eighty to ninety feet long. The papyri. papyri upon which contracts in Greek and Demotic are written are of a coarse fibre, and vary from ten to fourteen inches in width ; their lengths vary from one to ten feet. The usual width of papyri employed for literary compositions is about eight inches. The common name for a roll of

papyrus was J VV ~~ o<^ -Q- fa7na, Copt. XCOJUL, “a book.”

Papyrus letters and legal documents were fastened by being tied round with a piece of papyrus string, and upon this a piece of clay was laid, which, being impressed with a ring or scarab, formed a seal, called in Egyptian “"^ J Q t’ebdt.

The British Museum possesses among its seals impressions in clay of the seal of Shabaka, found at Kouyunjik (see p. 249) ; a seal (No. 5585) ascribed to Shashanq by Dr. Birch (in Layard, Babylon and Nineveh, London, 1853, p. 1857), which

reads JtTYT HjT ^^ :£&; an oval seal (No. 5584) bearing the name of a private person and the prenomen of Amasis II. f ©Q’O’jb and an oval seal (No. 5583), bearing the name of Naifaarut, the first king of the XXIXth dynasty.

The palette of the Egyptian scribe, called fj-j — | \ ^"^ mest/id, was made of basalt (B.M. No. 12,778), calcareous stone inlaid with lapis-lazuli (B.M. No. 24,576), and ivory (B.M. No. 5524), but more commonly of wood. In shape it was rectangular, and its size varied from 10 in. x 2 in. to 16 in. x 2\ in. ; its thickness was usually | of an inch. At one

EGYPTIAN WRITING MATERIALS. 35 I

end were circular, or oval, hollows to hold ink, the former being in the shape of **, and the latter of a cartouche c — > . About a third of the length of the palette from this end a sloping groove was cut, which from about the middle of the palette to the other end had an equal depth, for holding the reeds for writing. These were kept in their place either by a piece of wood gummed into the palette about a third of the way above the groove, or by a piece of wood, forming a bridge, under which the reeds could pass freely, and which was left uncut when the groove was made. A sliding cover over the longer part of the groove protected the ends of the reeds from damage. The hollows in the palette for holding the ink are usually two in number, one for red ink and one for black ; these being the colours most commonly used for writing upon papyri. Some palettes have as many as a dozen hollows, and these probably belonged to scribes whose business it was to ornament papyri with scenes painted in many colours. The dates of palettes can often be determined with accu- racy because, in addition to the name of the owner, the name of the king in whose reign he lived is given. Thus Royal B.M. No. 12,784 was made in the reign of Amasis I., B.M. 5513 Palettes- in that of Amenophis III., and B.M. 5514 in that of Rameses II. ; from these three examples we see that the form of the palette changed very little in a whole dynasty. The inscriptions upon palettes were usually in hieroglyphics, but B.M. No. 5524, made of ivory, is inscribed in hieratic, and B.M. No. 5517, made of wood, also has upon it an inscription in hieratic. The palette of a scribe was some- times placed in the tomb with its owner (see in the Papyrus of Ani, pi. 7, where it lies under the bier), and votive palettes are known, as for example B.M. No. 12,778. This object is made of green basalt, and at the end where the coloured inks were placed is a scene in outline in which the deceased is represented making an offering to Osiris, behind whom stand a goddess and Thoth. The places for the ink are outlined, but not hollowed out, and the groove is only cut a part of the length ; the reeds which still remain are fastened in with plaster, and it is perfectly clear that this

35 2 FUNEREAL ARCH/EOLOGY OF EGYPT.

palette was never used by a scribe. On each side is an inscription in hieroglyphics, which records the name and titles of the deceased, and which prays that appropriate sepulchral meals may be given to the deceased, and that he may enter in, and come out from the underworld, without repulse, whenever he pleases. Inscriptions on palettes are often dedications to the god Thoth, “lord of divine words.” Stone and faience palettes with eight, ten, or twelve small vases for ink were also used.

UanpeT5” The reed’ in Egyptian * \ $ qesk, Copt. K<LOj, with

V * L W I N A

which the Egyptian wrote, was about ten inches long, y^th or ^th of an inch in diameter ; the end used for writing was bruised to make the fibres flexible, and not cut. After the XXVIth dynasty an ordinary reed, similar to that which the Arabs and other Oriental nations use for writing at the present day, was employed, and the end was cut like a quill, or steel pen. The average sized palette will hold about ten writing reeds easily.

The ink which the Egyptian used was made of mineral and vegetable substances, mixed with a little gum and water. The substance which coloured the ink, black, red, blue, green, white, or yellow, was carefully rubbed down on a rectangular slab of granite, basalt, or marble, with a hard stone muller, and then thrown into a vessel, where the necessary quantity of water and gum was added to make it the consistency of moderately thin cream. The profes- sional scribe probably carried about with him pieces of colour similar to the specimens in blue, green, and red which are preserved in European museums, and rubbed down a little at a time according to his need. The green and blue colours are preparations from copper, which can, I understand, be successfully imitated at the present time; fine examples are B.M. 5565, 5571c, and small prepared lumps of colour exhibited in bronze bowl, B.M. 5556. The red and bronze colours were preparations from red ochre mixed with chalk ; an interesting example of the former is B.M. No. 18,337, and of the latter B.M. No. 5572.

EGYPTIAN WRITING. 353

Egyptian Writing.

The system of writing employed by the people called Great Egyptians was probably entirely pictorial either at the time ? ^rSero- when they first arrived in Egypt, or during the time that they Rlypjuc still lived in their original home. We, however, know of no wnting inscription in which pictorial characters alone are used, for the earliest specimens of their writing known to us contain alphabetical characters. The Egyptians had three kinds of writing— Hieroglyphic, Hieratic, and Demotic ; soon after the preaching of Saint Mark at Alexandria, the Christian popu- lation made use of the Greek alphabet, with the addition of certain characters which they borrowed from the demotic ; this method of writing was called Coptic.

Hieroglyphics, from the Greek lepoyXvfarcos, were com- Oldest monly employed for inscriptions upon temples, tombs, coffins, giyphic in- statues, and stelae, and many copies of the Book of the Dead scriPtion- were written in them. The earliest hieroglyphic inscription at present known is found on the monument of Shera, parts of which are preserved in the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford and in the Gizeh Museum; it dates from the Ilnd dynasty. Hieroglyphics were used in Egypt for writing the names of Roman Emperors and for religious purposes until the third century after Christ, at least.

Hieratic, from the Greek UpaTL/cos, was a style of cursive writing much used by the priests in copying literary com- positions on papyrus ; during the Xlth or Xllth dynasty wooden coffins were inscribed in hieratic with religious texts. The oldest document in hieratic is the famous Prisse papyrus, Oldest which records the counsels of Ptah-hetep to his son ; the com- ^scrip^ position itself is about a thousand years older than this tion« papyrus, which was probably inscribed about the Xlth dynasty. Drafts of inscriptions were written upon flakes of calcareous stone in hieratic, and at a comparatively early date hieratic was used in writing copies of the Book of the Dead. Hieratic was used until about the fourth century after Christ.

Demotic, from the Greek hrjfioTiKos, is a purely con- ventional modification of hieratic characters, which preserve little of their original form, and was used for social and business 13. M. 2 A

354 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT.

purposes ; in the early days of Egyptian decipherment it was

called enchorial, from the Greek iyx^P109- The demotic

writing appears to have come into use about B.C. 900, and

The it survived until about the fourth century after Christ. In

kinds of tne time of the Ptolemies three kinds of writing were inscribed

writing side by side upon documents of public importance, hiero-

Egypt. glyphic, Greek, and Demotic ; examples are the stele of

Canopus, set up in the ninth year of the reign of Ptolemy III.

Euergetes I., B.C. 247-222, at Canopus, to record the benefits

which this king had conferred upon his country, and the

famous Rosetta Stone, set up at Rosetta in the eighth year of

the reign of Ptolemy V. Epiphanes (B.C. 205-182), likewise

to commemorate the benefits conferred upon Egypt by

himself and his family, etc., etc. On the Rosetta Stone

hieroglyphic writing is called ap]~~^ | lh na en neter met, " writing of divine words," Demotic, U& >/ C ^ [1 (1 ^=^ na en iai, u writing of letters," and Greek M T flO G=^ W ¥ VSr j *XP en Haiii-nebu, " writing of the Greeks." A century or two after the Christian era Greek had obtained such a hold upon the inhabitants of Egypt, that the native Christian population, the disciples and followers of Saint Mark, were obliged to use the Greek alphabet to write down the Egyptian, that is to say Coptic, translation of the books of the Old and New Testaments, but they borrowed six signs from the demotic forms of ancient Egyptian characters to express the sounds which they found unrepresented in Greek. These signs are —

eg = JJjJ sh ; q = ^^_ f ;

A = 1 CH J & = I H ;

X = 4 TCH, like Turk. >- ; (T ‘= ^=^> K.

Coptic The knowledge of the ancient hieroglyphics was fast dying

wnllng’ out, and the phonetic values of many of those in use at this

period were altered. The name Copt is derived from Ljuj,

the Arabic form of the Coptic form of the Greek name for

MUMMIES OF ANIMALS, REPTILES, BIRDS, AND FISHES. 355

Egyptian, AlyvirTios . The Coptic language is, at base, a dialect of ancient Egyptian ; many of the nouns and verbs found in the hieroglyphic texts remain unchanged in Coptic, and a large number of others can, by making proper allowance for phonetic decay and dialectic differences, be identified without difficulty.

The Coptic dialect of Upper Egypt, called " Sahidic " Dialects of (from Arab, sjj^s), or Theban, was the older and richer dialect ; that of Lower Egypt was called Boheiric, from the province of Boheira in the Delta. The latter dialect has been wrongly called Bashmuric, and as it appears to have been exclusively the language of Memphis, it has obtained generally the name " Memphitic " ; the dialect of Bushmur on the Lake of Menzaleh appears to have become extinct about A.D. 900, and to have left no traces of itself behind. The Coptic translation of the Bible was considered by Renaudet, Wilkins, Woide, and George, to be as old as the second century of our era ; more modern scholars, however, are inclined to assert that it is not older than the eighth century. For an account of the revival of Coptic studies in Europe, see Quatremere, Recherches Critiques et Historiques sur la Langne et la Litterature de VEgypte, Paris, 1808, and for a list of the printed literature of the Copts, see Stern, Koptische Grammatik, pp. 441-447. The recognition of the fact that a knowledge of Coptic is most valuable as a pre- liminary to the study of hieroglyphics, probably accounts for the large and increasing share of the attention of scholars which this language receives.

Mummies of Animals, Reptiles, Birds, and Fishes.

The most common of the animals, reptiles, birds, and fishes which the Egyptians regarded as emblems of or sacred to the gods, and therefore mummified with great reverence and care, were : — Bull, Antelope, Jackal, Hippopotamus, Cat, Monkey or Ape, Crocodile, Ichneumon, Hedgehog, Shrew- mouse, Ibis, Hawk, Frog, Toad, Scorpion, Beetle, Snake, and the Latus, Oxyrhynchus and Silurus fishes.

2 A 2

356 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT.

Apis Bull, in Egyptian 8 ^ vi Hap, mummies are

tolerably common ; they were mummified with great honour, and buried in sarcophagi at Sakkarah. The oldest are pro- bably those of the XVIIIth dynasty.

Antelope, in Egyptian ZS ‘v\ \ 0 ^ kahes o* Jp |^ i JfL^ make?, mummies are rare ; a good specimen is B.M. No. 6ySsa.

Cati in Egyptian v(] ^> kfr m(*u> mummies are very

common, and exhibit many methods of bandaging with linen

of two colours ; they were placed in bronze or wooden cases,

made in the form of a cat, the eyes of which were inlaid with

obsidian, rock-crystal, or coloured paste. Wooden cat-cases

often stand on pedestals, and are painted white, green, etc.

Mummified kittens were placed in rectangular bronze or

wooden cases, which, at times, are surmounted with figures

Greek of cats. Diodorus says (I., 83) that when a cat died all the

con^rni inmates of the house shaved their eyebrows as a sign of

the cat. mourning, and although the statement by the same writer

that the Egyptians slew a Roman who had accidentally

killed a cat may be somewhat exaggerated, there is no doubt

that the animal sacred to Bast was treated with great

respect in Egypt, and that dead bodies of the animals

were sent to be buried, after embalmment, to Bubastis. The

cat was fed with specially prepared bread soaked in milk,

and chopped fish.

Mummies Crocodile, in Egyptian f\ |l >k S ^^ emsnh, mummies

etc. of a large size are not common ; small crocodiles, lizards,

and other members of that family were embalmed and placed in rectangular bronze or wooden cases, the tops of which were frequently surmounted by a figure of this reptile in relief. ,

Ichneumon mummies were placed in bronze cases, made in the shape of this animal.

Shrew-mice mummies are not common ; they were placed in rectangular bronze cases, surmounted by a figure of this animal.

MUMMIES OF ANIMALS, REPTILES, BIRDS, AND FISHES. 357

Ibis, in Egyptian |~[] ^s\ J ^\ J§^. habu, mummies,

embalmed, and buried in earthenware jars, stopped with plaster, are very common.

The Hawk, in Egyptian 1 (j ^zz* vv bdk, when mum- mified, was placed either in a rectangular bronze case or in a bronze case in the form of a hawk.

Frogs, in Egyptian | A J^ heqet, and Toads, when em- balmed, were placed in cases made of bronze or steatite.

Scorpion, in Egyptian I ggp Serq, mummies are

very rare ; they were placed in rectangular cases, inscribed with the name of Isis-Serq, which were surmounted by figures of the scorpion, with the head of a woman wearing disk and horns (B.M. No. 11,629).

Beetle, in Egyptian M W or M “^v XePer>

rarely ^ ^ jMj dbeb, mummies were deposited in cases of

wood (B.M. No. 86540) or stone (B.M. No. 2880).

Snake mummies are very common, and were either Mummies placed in rectangular bronze or wooden cases, or wrapped gf^11165’ in many bandages and laid in pits. Bronze snake-cases usually have a figure of the snake coiled up in relief upon them, but sometimes the head, which is human and erect, wears the double crown and uraeus (B.M. No 6881^); one example having the head of a hawk is also known (B.M. No. 6879). The uraeus serpent, in Egyptian ^^HBl

Arart, was the most commonly mummified.

Fish were mummified largely, and were either placed singly in cases of bronze or wood, or several were bandaged up in a bundle and laid in a pit prepared for the purpose. Many fish were known to the Egyptians, and the commoner

sorts were (J ^^ ^^ dnnu = dypo<;, Q£± J^ ^^ aba,

1 ^ barei J T& s1k ^ ba$*> and

betu ; the usual name for fish in general was

353 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT.

|\ ^ rem. The f J ^^ ^> ^\ abtu and the

(1/vwwnX^ ant were mythological fishes which accompanied the boat of the Sun.

ClPPI OF HORUS.

These curious and interesting objects are made of basalt and other kinds of hard stone, and calcareous stone ; they are in the shape of a rounded tablet, and vary in size from 3 in. x 2 in., to 20 in. x 16 in.; the Metternich stele is, however, very much larger. The scenes engraved upon them represent the triumph of light over darkness, the victory of good over evil, and cippi were used as talismans by those who were initiated into the mysteries of magic, to guard them from the attacks of noxious beasts, and from the baneful influence of Set, the god of all evil. To give an idea of these magical objects, a description of an example, in a good state of preservation, now in the British Museum (No. 95 7#) is here appended.1 On the front, in relief, is a figure of Horus, naked, standing upon two croco- diles, which are supported by a projecting ledge at the foot of the stele. Horus has the lock of hair, emblematic of youth, on the right side of his head, and above him, resting on the top of his head, is a head of Bes, also in relief. His arms hang at a little distance from his sides ; in the right hand he holds two serpents, a scorpion, and a ram or stag, Scenes on and in the left two serpents, a scorpion, and a lion. On the Horus?S ° right is a sceptre, upon which stands the hawk of Horus wearing horns, disk and feathers,2 and on the left is a lotus- headed sceptre with plumes and two mendts* (see p. 265). To the right and to the left of the god, outside the sceptres, are eight divisions ; those on the right represent : —

I. Oryx, with a hawk on his back, in front is inscribed

VSr ^37 Q , " Horus, lord of Hebennu,” i.e., the metro-

polis of the sixteenth nome of Upper Egypt.

1 A faulty copy is given in Wilkinson, The Ancient Egyptians, Vol. III., pi. XXXIII.

2 The inscription reads c^3 A , " Behutet, great god.’

3 The inscription reads,

CIPPI OF HORUS. 359

2. Ibis-headed god, Thoth, ^711^7 | II, “lord of Chemennu, lord of divine words,” and the god Her-shef hawk-headed, wearing the triple crown

3. " Heka, lord of enchantments," ^—^ ^37 8 LJ, hawk- headed, holding a serpent in each hand ; " Neith, mighty lady, divine mother, lady of Sais" N ^^ hV | ^^ ~~~*~ N^ ©•

4. Hawk-headed god, mummified, wearing disk and hold- ing a serpent in each hand; the inscription is ® 1 ^\ ^-^

^ " Chensu, lord of Sam-behutet"

5. Isis, A ^g\ ^^o, with the body of a hippopotamus,

holding a snake ; on her head she wears a disk and horns.

6. Ptah, in the form of a squat child standing on a

pedestal with four or five steps; the inscription is g ny vvxfMg.

Ptah ser da, il Ptah, prince, mighty "

1 7. The goddess Serqet, scorpion-headed, holding a serpent

with both hands ; the inscription is I *ZZ7 •¥• " Serqet,

lady of life."

8. Goddess, wearing disk and serpent, $Q, on her head, Scenes on standing between two serpents; the inscription reads ^37 ^g HoruPsUS°f " Nebt hetep."

The eight scenes on the left hand side of Horus repre- sent : —

1. Goddess, having a disk and two scorpions on her head, which is in the form of two serpents’ heads, standing on a crocodile ; she holds a serpent in her right hand, and a serpent and a scorpion in the left ; on the crocodile’s head is a bird. The inscription reads, “fe* ^Q LJ ^3^ T

2. Crocodile, with disk and horns, on a stand ; behind it a serpent Usert, “? ^* The inscription reads, | J ^f^5 " great god "

3. Isis suckling Horus among papyrus plants, under a canopy formed by two serpents, called Nechebet 1 ‘j - and Uatchet j ^, wearing the crown of Upper and Lower

360 FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT.

Egypt respectively ; under each serpent is a scorpion. The inscription reads U f* ^37® J ‘W , " Isis, lady of Cheb.”

4. Crocodile-headed god Sebek I J ^3* seated. This scene is rendered incomplete by a break in the cippus.

5. Hawk-headed god wearing the crown of Lower Egypt, and holding a serpent in his hands; he is called \^^ jfl

i

, " Horus, son of Osiris, born of Isis.”

6. Hawk of Horus vS. , wearing horns and plumes

standing on pw*^ ; behind him is Q sen, and a goddess, wearing disk and horns, and having the body of a scorpion,

called “Isis-Serqet” [j^P<^>-

7. Horus, in the form of a boy, holding /fj\ over his left shoulder, seated on a crocodile, under a canopy formed by two

serpents ; the inscription reads, V^ III 1 /r^lSSt*

8. The goddess Uatchet Tf?, wearing crown of Lower

Egypt, on a papyrus sceptre ; behind her Hu *= and Sau SB, each holding a knife.

Above the two crocodiles on which Horus stands are two small scenes in each of which is a crocodile, one being on a stand : that to the right of Horus has on his head vJjL and

that on the left v I ; the former is called \yU

ira n (c> “Hidden is his name,” and the latter wnh $, “Horus

in Uu.”

The inscription, which covers the front and base of the

pedestal and back and sides of the cippus, contains an

invocation to the god from whom the person for whom it

was made seeks to gain power.

Late date Cippi of Horus belong probably to the period which

HorusPi °f followed soon after the end of the rule of the XXVIth

dynasty over Egypt, and the inscriptions on them are badly

executed. They are generally found broken in half, or if

not broken, the head of Horus has been hammered to deface

the features ; these injuries probably date from ancient times.

CIPPI OF HORUS. 361

The largest and finest specimen of the cippi of Horus is The Met- that preserved in the Museum of Metternich Castle at Konigs- te™ich warth in Bohemia. It was found in the beginning of this century at Alexandria during the building of a fountain in a Franciscan convent there, and was given to Prince Metternich by Muhammad ‘Ali in 1828. It is made of a hard, dark- green stone upon which the figures of the gods and the inscriptions are finely and beautifully cut. The inscriptions have much in common with the magical texts inscribed upon papyri in London, Turin, and Paris, and are of great interest ; this stele was made for Nectanebus I., about B.C. 370. A fac-simile of the stele and the text was published with a German translation and notes by W. Golenischeff, Die Metter- nichstele …. zum ersten Mai herausgegeben, Leipzig, 1877. A long article is devoted to the consideration of the cippi of Horus by Lanzone, Dizionario, pp. 583-594; and see Birch in Arundale and Bonomi, Gallery of Antiquities, p. 39 ff.

The Egyptian Year.1

The ancient Egyptians had : — I. The vague, or civil year, which consisted of 360 days ; it was divided into twelve months of thirty days each, and five intercalary days 2 were added at the end. II. The Sothic year of 365 \ days. The first year of a Sothic period began with the rising of Sirius or the dog-star, on the 1st of the month Thoth, when it coincided with the beginning of the inundation. III. The solar year, which was practically the same as the civil year, and which was a quarter of a day shorter than the Sothic year, an error which corrected itself in 1460 fixed years or 1 46 1 vague years. The true year was estimated approxi- mately by the conjunction of the sun with Sirius. Dr. Brugsch

1 The whole subject of the origin of the Egyptian year has recently been discussed with excellent results in Nature, Vol. XLV., 1892, p. 487, by Prof. N. Lockyer ; and Vol. XLVT., p. 104 ff.

2 Called in Egyptian \x ff, £ ,,J | , , “five days over the year.” The first was called the " birth of Osiris," the second “the birth of Horus,” the third “the birth of Set,” the fourth “the birth of Isis,” and the fifth the “birth of Nephthys.” The Greeks called these days, iirayofxivai rififpai irevre, and the Copts rU£.&OT" ITKOYXI, " the little month."

362 FUNEREAL ARCHEOLOGY OF EGYPT.

thinks {Egypt under the Pharaohs, Vol. II., p. 17) that as early as B.C. 2500 four different forms of the year were already in use, and that the " little year n corresponded with the lunar year, and the “great year” with a lunar year having intercalated days.1 The divisions of time of the

Egyptians were ^ ant, “one-sixtieth of a second,”

Jj^q hat, “second,” H^ at, “minute,” «=^=» unnut, “hour,” O hru, “day,” >**% abet, “month,” J" 6* renpit, “year>” QQ sed> “period of thirty years,” ttfi hen, “period,” ^ heh, “millions of years,” |q| l^h, and XI t’etta, " immeasurable time," or " eternity." The Egyptian week consisted of ten days O f! .

1 See Lepsius, Die Chronologic der Aegypter, p. 147 ff.

THE EGYPTIAN YEAR.

363

<4.

0 0

ooo< oo©< ^

0 DO II 01°

CO

O

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H

P-.

< O

w

H

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2

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£

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3

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3 2 « ■4 & 3

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F

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(- (■ (

uoivupunui jo *Suimos jo 2uja\oj2 jo ‘qjaoj Sirnuoo

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/ A . , A_. , ,___ A .

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FUNEREAL ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT.

Egyptian and Coptic Numbers.

• f>

HIEROGLYPHIC.

neb

COPTIC.

Masculine. Feminine

4>^.ctji, xoc, (foe

J/vws II

= t^

I = , . xemt

(=& III

or

INI

UNI = * tua

i = pqji

mini = M «x^

= i &w (fem. a #<^) <L 0"*<LI 2

v ojojult"

/>* a cttcoot

e ‘foT

F cTot

K CtJJULKIt

sas

8 llllllll = II xemennu

9 111111111= /tf^and— ^ | /«/ o “4t~T

io

fl = <e==db met

15 mini = . **?/ /<

20 nn = I

30 nnn = ^J

40 nnnn =

50 nnnnn

(^

faut

mab

/www I

60

nnn nnn

hement

taiu

sau

i xxwrv le julct^ot

K XCJOT X JUl<L& JUL £,JL*.e

It Teoiri

Olfl

crto*cf~

qxoe

fe

coe

ojA.cyqi

ctjiutHrti

JULH’f

xoTurre

1 See Eisenlohr, isV« mathematisches Handbuch der alien Aegypter, Leipzig, 1877, p. 15 ff.

• For the variants see Stern, Koptische Grammatik, p. 131 ff.

EGYPTIAN AND COPTIC NUMBERS. 365

nnnn nnn

=

f m^\ sefex

0

cg&e

nnnn nnnn

=

fl l| (|l| xemennui

u

<£juLerte

nnnnn nnnn

q

nicTeo-ri

<g

=

I*H^^ iaa

p

eye

£<2

=

^d?JL ietau

c1

citA/r ft eye

1

=

l*<

J.

ego

i

=

2l? J ] idb

I

efU

70

80 90

IOO

200

IOOO

10,000

100,000 <^ = 8 *"=”" ^s^ hefennu pL Oje It OJO

1 Xt=3oo, T = 40o, $ = 500, ^=600, [f - 700 CO = 800, ^=900.

1,000,000

A List of the Commonest Hieroglyphic Signs and their Phonetic Values.1

A.

an

(£Z as -&

at ^^ at sj=s

a

(.i.,&a

aa

k±bl, C=D

aau

frf

aah

«*>n

ab

“^■^[•O

abet

^-^

ap

V> ^. .■■

af

?, 9

afet

ffl

ausar

£3.

.Cj

C3

j

+.+

c?, n, dflfc,

5 -> 5 v\i » r» j

~e-

auset am

amax amen

1 This list does not contain the values assigned to certain of the hieroglyphics in the Greek and Roman periods.

ament

amsu

an

aneb anem ^ aner nnm

ari <o:^,

aru ^>, o

as

at

ateh

ater

a0i

hi-

LIST OF HIEROGLYPHIC SIGNS

A.

“inni!:i

3fy

^7:

aa 0-==^

aba QV^

a I

am •**£}, l, T

an Jf, <3SD, ^, ^

^, (<§), CZD, anx -|-

arq aha ahet

.* y

at XDC

aq

— ^ >

, \ 1a rfe*

1 5–

1

k

h J

beha y&&, q^

ba ^’^’%*‘jk

behutet ^se7

ba £7, W

bah 1{5*

bener 0

bex ^)

bennu ^fes

bes ^^

befr ^-=^, <c=:=u)

beti I

368

betu bet

LIST OF HIEROGLYPHIC SIGNS. B — continued. bek bak

beq jLj},

p

n

pe%

c

pa

M

pest

1

pat

O

pes

c

paut

6

pet

F=3

papa

4

peteh

^£3

per

tt,\j,

K^

pet

S.~

peh

t).j&.

b

pek

5.Tr

fa

F.

U.

fent £3

ua

uas |

uat £j=£ uat’

C^9:

<^_

uah

uu X

un Ar *&**!&

ur [|,^t,X

usr

usex JHpfi ^7

us

ut

uteb ^

utfes -£=a-

LIST OF HIEROGLYPHIC SIGNS. U — continued.

uten f—J7 , c=

369

ut’eb r\j^

M.

m

m

maa <r^su

ma

ma ’ a d, .Q. — D, (c==u)

/WWW

mau /wwv\

/WWV\

mar 0 mak tiJl

men

, r^^i

mat a

menat meni 5 I menx mer

3Z^‘00’ !^,I=:I,ISC,

meh (fe£, ^r-^a, ^a, (SJ>

•1

mesen 3 , t=a£=i met fe==rb mut

mes

N.

n

A/WVW

na

-®-,

nar

^

nu

0

B. M.

V

neb ^Z^,{fi^,|g§,-^V

nub pw^

nef 2^2

2 B

370

nefer

nem

nemmat

enen 11, r^

nini -^/J, <si_J)

neh [p

nelj ^‘3f

nehem ^

nexeb 1

r or 1 <z ra O

ru

remen ,-^& ren CZD

LIST OF HIEROGLYPHIC SIGNS. N — continued.

r

TO

next

t-

nes

n

nest

s

net

y.

nut

©

net’

T

net’em 8

neter

1

neqer 0

R.

reX JH

res 2'1’i

ret 1,C,([,£,^\

H.

ra

ha

heb ^

hen

hru O

H

ha

ha ^,<???,^ baa

ill’*

hap A

hu < .,

heb ^£7,

hefen ^

hem N^,^,^

henk

LIST OF HIEROGLYPHIC SIGNS. H — continued,

hra §•

371

her §»

V,

f>.

^

heseb Q hesep

het fl

het’ J,

hetep r-6-, , © hetem rl

heter &A

heka ^

X

xa xai

beq j,&

X or CH.

xeper

^1

xi

xabes J], *

xeb

xep

xepes ^^3

xem ^^

xemt ^, j;, ^

xnem Q

xent S.ffUl-ffl-^

2B2

372

LIST OF

HIEROGLYPHIC SIGNS.

X

or CH-

-continued.

%erP

X"s

xesef

4-

xet XUt xaker

s sa

—it

smer sen sun sent

8

seb

-n-,*

sent

<£$

sab

“^

ser

fj.^‘K’^8

sebt

sebex

sebek

6

serq

seh

sah

3jP

fef'8

sep

sper

sept

—A

'

seher sexen sexet

su

k

ses

x,<H?

sua

sesep

^,^ga,fei

sam sem

I

seset

seseta

sta

-e-

set

sati

set Q^£l,

LIST OF HIEROGLYPHIC SIGNS. S — continued. set’eb

setep £> — . setem, set em ijt sek

373

3-m

seq jj,^,\

s

1 \ 1

sa

IM

sa

*kh

su

p,i

seps

«

sep

^=^

sat

SH.

iem Ejp

semer n=s^

sen _^3^,9,J,Q

serau ^^.

t

ta

taui

ta

ti

teb

tep

Kj.^. 0-9.0

II

tef f* tern ^n-Tr

ft

ten ter

tra teh

f

i”” %•

374

e

0en

LIST OF HIEROGLYPHIC SIGNS. T — continued. tex <>,% texen II tut

e or TH.

flehen Fjyjj»

6>es 0et

Jt

i

t ta

tu

tua

teb

tep ^, ©

tebh >^,>^

t’

t’a

t’a

t’eba

t’ef

t’er

i-

)

^^,^v,

tern

ten *$

tenten £\

tes ^

teser ^j,

teser ^ , ^

tet ff, . a

T or TCH.

t’aut ^

t’es ^

t’eser ^

Bs

l’et I’l-i’J’-^-‘O

tetta t’at’a

LIST OF DETERMINATIVES.

K.

ka U, ’e==u), *%5jl keP ***** <^» g$

kat %\ , \S3^ katu ^=^

375

Q-

q ^

qenbet [p3

qa \

qens cj=o

qebh |J,p

qent ^

qem “j, ^, a

qer p==»

qemU ]jf;^

qers k<t», Mr

qen h+h, <^>

qes ^>8,#>

qet

!•

K.

k O ka & keb j^^ ker \ , |

A List of the Commonest Determinatives.

Character.

Determinative of.

Character.

Determinative of.

*a

to cry, to call

«

to skip

f& 1

to address, to adore

to bow down

rtomakean agree- l ment

jr

to exalt, to rejoice to turn back

y

(form, image, < mummy, to [ establish

T 1

to dance

majesty, dignity old age

3/6

LIST OF DETERMINATIVES.

Character. Determinative of.

to beat, to strike

4 J

Character.

joy

to plough

‘M’&fto

make an offer- ing

to sow

to bear, to carry

wickedness, enemy

to build to support to pierce

to run

to pour out a libation

ft’d

man

fto eat, to think, I to speak

inertness, to rest

fto hide, be 1 hidden

libationer

&=^±3

?•«■!{

a

U

Detenninative of. millions of years to write dead body overthrow, defeat

soldier

child, youth, growth

king, prince

[-ancestor, the [ blessed dead

divinity

Osiris

Ptah

Ptah-tenen

Amsu

Amen

Shu

Chensu

Ra

Heru (Horus)

Anpu (Anubis)

Chnemu

Hapi (Nile)

LIST OF DETERMINATIVES.

Character.

$-^r

a-

\i4

J^^-

Determinative of. Set

Tehuti (Thoth) Bes

woman, goddess

Auset (Isis)

Nebt-het [ (Nephthys) Het-Hert (Hathor)

Nut

Maat

Sechet

Bast

Sesheta

Serqet

pregnancy

birth

to suckle

to dandle

head, chief, best

r head-dress, skin, 1 colour, grief r to see, to watch, 1 to sleep

Character.

fff

^T:

£3

f*

x.0

no

A a i

A

377

Determinative of.

(eye painted with I kohl

to weep, to grieve

eye of Horus

J eyes of Sun and 1 Moon

eyebrows ear, to listen

rnose, to smell, I joy

lips

teeth

blood

back-bone, to cut

breast

to embrace

to prohibit, ne- gation, want, need

battle, to fight

to seize, to beat, to strike

to write, paint

a d

to make an offer- ing, or gift

3/3

LIST OF DETERMINATIVES.

Character.

i

J

-a

_=©

I

*T

Determinative of. to grasp finger

f phallus, the front 1 of, male

testicles

{to walk, stand, to enter rto turn back, to (. return

leg, foot, to run

foot and leg

to break into

knee

flesh

animals

birth

the front

j behind, power, t to arrive at rthroat,to breathe, X to eat J horn, to resist, X to attack Jto taste, to eat, 1 to speak

{talon, to seize, to carry off

skin, animal

Character.

T

*J

ttft.

^

l*s

Determinative of.

to shoot

rflesh and bone, \ heir, offspring

tail, end

rail actions attri- t buted to Set

birds, to fly

to hover, to stop

[small size, 1 wickedness

wing, to fly

{egg, feminine gender

fish

{crocodile, de- struction

serpent

goddess, uraeus tree wood

flower

(“sweetness, plea- l sure jyear, time, 1 growth

field

LIST OF DETERMINATIVES.

379

Character. Determinative of.

grain

wheat, barley, etc.

(“store house, 1 granary

vineyard

sky

night, darkness

QQQ, ooo

W

T^

If’ Itff.

rain, storm, cloud

o

s

G

[wj:

sun, time light, brilliance moon star, god earth, land

mountain

foreign land, foreign people

island, sea-coast nome, district

& town

%-£*? road, to travel

i — i, nTTffl stone

o°o tnetad

^, JJ metal

1 j

[W]

/WWW /WWW

Character. Determinative of.

[water, river, to 1 wash

• {

liquid

a collection of water

0

n-o

A. A 1

Q

1

’liiimir

H’i5 ll

’ ( lake, basin of water

house pylon

wall

to overturn

a fortified place

angle

staircase

pyramid

obelisk

tablet

to establish

festival

door, to open a bolt funereal coffer

)boat

38o

Character.

J

ffi

■•B

LIST OF DETERMINATIVES.

Determinative of.

boat of Seker

J to sail up th I river

wind, breath to steer seat

M

f

? 41

f bier, dead per- l son, mummy

pillow

to bandage

seat, throne

funereal box, tomb, sarco- phagus

bandages fan

mirror scales

altar, table divinity

crown and head-

•  dress 
  

crown and head- dress

Q

8

VI

\

M

Character. Determinative of.

a J

collar buckle, tie tongue, to taste ring

to seal

fto arrive, foreign 1 people

to cut, to wound

(block and I hatchet

weapon arrow chariot to plough

{cord, to bandage, to wrap [ book, to write, { to read, know- l ledge

oil, perfume libation oil, perfume, wine milk

-°^

o>&> -5-

LIST OF DETERMINATIVES.

381

Character.

h

544

…a ^D

Determinative of.

vase

offering

rthe heart, in- \ telligence

offering fire, to burn incense vase pouring out

C35ZD

e.e.e.a

cake, bread

scribe, writing

Character.

I, 111 I

W

X

to

Determinative of.

rbook, writing, pic- ture, account, thought, ab- stract idea

plural

to repeat

to add, to increase

half, to divide

{death, wicked- ness

name jto stink, to em- ( balm

scent

fa cutting tool, to s make to shine, I bone

INDEX.

The principal references are indicated by blacker-faced type.

Aah-hetep 29

Aahmes, see Amasis

Aahmes the naval officer 29, 30, 220

Aamu 17, 18, 21, 230

Aamu-kehak 29

Aaua, pillow of 211

Aauput 50

‘Abd el- Aziz 251

<Abd el-Latif 174, 183

Aboccis 44

Absha 21, 230

Abu Habbah 250

Abukir G8

Abu Mansur, Pyramid of 342

Abu Roash 330, 339

Abu Simbel 40, 44

Abusir 330, 339

Abydos 9, Tablet of 9, 10, 17, 24, 39, 56, 71, 157, 168, 211, 230, 340

Abydos, Tombs at 343

Accadians 7, 26

Achaeans 45

Achoris 62

Acropolis at Kamiros 249

Adikran 58

Adrammelech 54

Aelian 232, 233

Aelius Gallus 66, 112

Aelius Lampridius 187

Africa 39, 57

Agesilaus 63, 64

Ahmed 341

Ahrens quoted 255

Ai 37

Alyv7TTo<s, derivation of 11

Akati 33

Akauasha 45

Akerblad 109, 126, 132—138, 140,

143 Akhmim 191, 192, 217, 193 Akita 44

Alabastronpolis 37 Alexander the Great 64, 65, 183,

184 Alexandria 68, 108, 113 Alexandrian Library 66 Alisphragmuthosis 27, 28 Altekeh 53 Amada 22 Amamu 204, 307 Amasis I. 29, 32, 220, 230, 351

„ II. 58, 59, 350 Amasis the naval officer 220 Ambrose 187, 233

INDEX.

383

Arueilhon 110

Amelineau 187

Amen 39, 49, 65, 158, 220, 221, 251

Amenartas 230

Amen-em-hat I. 19

II. 21

III. 22 IY. 23

Amenhetep, see Amenophis

Ameni 344

Ameni Amen-em-hat 21

A men-em-apt 222

Amen-mes 45

Amenophis I. 29, 32 II. 33, 230 „ III. 34—36, scarabs of

34, 37, 39, 43, 191, 227, 246,248,251, 303, 351 IV. 36, 37, 44, 220

Amen-Ra 19, 28, 29, 31, 34, 36, 37, 39, 42,47, 50, 51, 71,73,75,119, 157, 171, 246, 267,268,269 illus- tration

A men-rut (Amyrtaeus) 61

A men-set 219

Amenta 313

Amenti 209

Ames, see Amsu 270

Ammianus Marcellinus 3, 118, 119

Amnis Trajanus 67

‘Amr ibn el ‘Asi 68

Amset, see Mestha 195

Amsu 71, 269 illustration, 270, 363

Amulets 256

Amyrtaeus 61, 62

An 15

An-antef 207, 307

Anastasius 68

Anch-nes-Amen 227

Anch-nes-nefer-ab-Ra 59, 313

An-her 75, 285, 286 illustration

Ani, papyrus of 207, 351

Ani the scribe 157

Animals sacred to the gods 297 — 301

Animals mummied 355

Anpu, see Anubis

Anqet 283, 285 illustration

Antef Kings 18 „ III. 224

Antef, stele of, illustration 219

Antelope 356

Antoninus 246

Antony the Great 66, 189

Anubis 73, 158, 164, 165, 166,170, 186, 189, 216, 221, 279, 280 illus- tration, 313

Apachnas 25

Apapus 26

Apepa I. 26 „ II. 26, 28

Apepi 271, 313

Aphroditopolis 8, 71, 73

Apion 9, 26

Apis Bull 11, 51, 60, 65, 281 illus- tration, 282

Apis, town of 73

Apollinopolis Magna 71

Apollonia 174

Apophis 25

Apries 58, 59

Apts 158, 171

Apu 191

Ap-uat 71, 165, 166, 221, 313

‘Arabi Pasha 68

Arabians 25

Arabs 191, 231, 318, 331, 341

Aradus 33

Arban, scarabs from 251, 252

Arcadius 68

3^4

INDEX.

Arcesilaus 59 Aristotle 232 Arsaces 288 Arses 65 Arsu 46 Artabanus 61 Artaxerxes I. 61

II. 62, 64

III. 65 Artemidorus, mummy of 186 Artemisium 61 Arundale 109, 361 Aryandes 60

‘Asasif 218

Ascalon 43

Asia 28, 29, 39, 176

Asiatics 19, 43, 44

Asphaltites Lake 174

Assa 15

Assis 25

Assurbanipal 54, 55

Assyria 30, 53, 54, 55, 250

Assyrians 8, 28, 36, 53, 250

Aswan 8, 17, 22, 31, 34, 58

„ tombs of 344, 345 Asyut 24, 71

,, tombs of 344 Ata 11, 340 Ataka 46 Aten 36 Atena 211, 230 Aten-neferu 36, 245 Athenians 61 Athens 63 Athribis 75

Atmu 75, 272 illustration Augustus 119 Aurelian 67, 187 Avaris 25, 27, 28, 29, 220

fia, or Soul 328

Baal 54

Baba 29

Babylon 36, 57; 58, 65, 250

Babylonians 8, 18, 33, 58

Bachmann 114, 118

Bactria 112

Bagdad 250, 251

Bagoas 65

Bailey 127

Bak-en-ren f 52

Bakers 327 illustration

Baldensel 335

Ba-neb-Tettet 75

Baqet 8

Bar-Hebraeus 26, 27, 256

Barth&emy 4, 143

Bashmuric 355

Basil 187

Bast 75, 288 illustration

Bata 276

Battus 59

Bauer 190

Beaumont and Fletcher 231

Bechten 48

Beetle 357

Begig 21

Belmore, Earl of 203

Belzoni 330, 336

Benfey quoted 3

Beni-hasan, tombs of 20 illustration

21, 230, 344 Bentresh 48 Beon 25 Beqet 7

Bes 229, 264, 285, 287 illustration Bet el-Wali 44 Berenice 66, 108 Berlin Academy 206 Beyrut 43, 54

INDEX.

385

Bezold 36

Biban el-Muluk 47

Bible, Coptic translation of 355

Birch, the late Dr Samuel 1, 27, 47, 113, 124, 148, 149, 207, 204, 206, 208, 211, 218, 222, 224, 237, 244, 246, 251, 257, 263, 284

Birds mummied 355

Birket el-Kurun 22

Bitter Lakes 56

Black Obelisk 210

Blemmyes 67

Blumenbach 189

Bocchoris 52

Bockh 10, 110

Boeotia 249

Boheira 355

Boheiric 355

Bonomi 109, 119, 120, 312, 361

Book of the Dead 11, 159, 163, 171, 172, 182, 185, 191, 196, 199, 202 —210, 211, 214, 217, 236, 238, 256, 260, 307, 309, 350, 353

Book of the Underworld 312

Boussard 108

Boxes, sepulchral 216

British Museum 15, 28, 47, 108, 181, 186, 188, 201, 204, 208, 210, 211, 217, 224, 246, 247, 250, 251, 252, 261, 297, 306, 327

Bruce 330

Brugsch, E. 49

Brugsch, H. 1, 3, 10, 19, 51, 69, 71, 109, 149, 208, 243, 328, 361

Brims 27

Bubastis 11, 56, 64, 75, 287

Budge 15, 36, 184

Bulak Museum founded 68

Bun sen, the late Baron 1, 3, 10, 121, 207 B. M.

Burton 10 Busiris 75, 340 Buto 75

Cadet 202

Caesar Augustus 60

Cailliaud 232

Cairo 331

Caligula 67

Canibyses 59, 60, 65

Canaanites 50

Candace 66

Canopic Jars, 171, 192 — ‘A01 „ „ chests for 201

Canopus 67, 194

Stele of 108, 109, 354

Caracalla 67

Carchemish 33, 57

Carians 56

Carthaginians 248

Cartouche, amulet of 265

Cat, sacred to Bast 299

Cats mummied 356

Cattle marching, illustration of, 327

Caviglia 14, 330

Cha 12

Chabas 15, 109, 150, 206

Chabbesha 61

Cha-em Men-nefer 29

Chaeremon 112, 113, 115, 117, 118, 124

Chafra, see Chephren

Chaldeans 27

Champollion Figeac 1, 10, 69

Champollion le Jeune quoted 120, sketch of his life 129—131, his works 131, 132, his work on Rosetta Stone 133 ff., his letter to Dacier 142, his Egyptian al-

2C

386

INDEX.

phabet 144 — 147, opinions of scholars of 148—152, 203

Chaptal 109

Charon 155

Chemennu 359

Chensu (Chonsu) 47, 48, 267, 268, 271 illustration, 272

Chensu-nefer-hetep 272 illustration

Chensu-pa-chrat 272

Cheops 12, 15, 331, 332, 333, 334, 335, 338

Chepera 221, 234, 251, 275 illustra- tion

Chephren 13, 14, 15, 335, 336, 337, 338

Cher-heb 162

Cheta 37, 39, 40, 42, 43, 44, 49

Chetam 39

Cheta-sar 40

Chiliades quoted 113

China 65

Chirebu 42

Chnemu 71, 73, 266, 268, 275 illus- tration

Chnemu-hetep 21, 219, 230, 344

Chnoubis 251

Choiak 36

Chois 23, 73

Chosroes 68

Christianity in Egypt 310

Chronicles quoted 58

Chrysostom 187

Chut or intelligence 328

Chu-en-aten, see Amenophis IV.

Chufu, see Cheops

Chufu-anch 311

Chut 331

Chut, amulet of 264

Cinyps 191

Clarke, G. W. 233

Claudius 67, 112

Clement of Alexandria 112, 121,

122, 187 Cleopatra 66 Coffins 306—310 Colchis 191 Collar, amulet of 260 Colossi, the 34, 38 illustration Colossus of Memnon 34 Combs 226 Cones, Funereal 218 Constantine 67 Constantinople 33, 68 Constantius 68 Cook, Thomas 340 Coptic language 3, 4, 354

„ dialects 354 Coptos 18, 46, 71, 187, 348 Copts 191, 192, 231

,, era of 67

,, literature of 355 Corippus 178 Cory 124 Critoboulos 59 Crocodile 356 Crocodilopolites 8 Cusae 71 Cush 30, 51 Cushites 26 Cynopolites 8 Cyprian 187 Cyprus 54, 59, 62, 64 Cyrene 60 Cyrenians 58

Dahshur 330, 341, pyramids of 342 Damascus 32 Damietta 175 Darius I. 60, 61, 222 m II. 61

INDEX.

3*7

Darius II T. 05

Davison 330

Deems 67, 111

De Fleury 190

De Guignes 4, 125

De Hammer 202

De la Fontaine 175

De Rossi 4

De Rouge 3, 45, 50, 73, 202, 207,

313 De Sacy 109, 125, 126, 133, 183 Delta 8, 10, 11, 24, 28, 46, 50, 54,

55, 61, 64 Democritus 112 Demotic 353 Denderah 11, 12, 126 Denon 330 Der ehbahari 31, 32, 44, 49, 169,

229, 236 Der on the Euphrates 251 Deveria 190 Dillmann 206 Dindorf 121 Diocletian 67 Diodoras Siculus 2, 8, 112, 118, 155,

179, 181, 183, 336, 356 Diogenes Laertius 112 Dioscorides 174 Diospolis magna 75 Diospolis parva 71 Disk-worshippers 37 Domitian 67 Drumann 110 Dulaurier 120 Diimichen 1, 9, 71, 150 Duval 231 Dynasties, Egyptian 9

Ebers 3, 151 Edfu 65, 66

Egypt, history of 1 — 68 „ land of 7, 8 „ names of 8 „ nomes of 8

Egyptian, the, physical characteris- tics of 1 — 3; was neither Negro nor Semite 3

Egyptian chronology , systems of 9, 69 dynasties 9, 77—107 funeral 153—173 „ language 3 — 7 ,, race 1 ,, writing, three kinds of 122

Eileithyia 29, 71

Eisenlohr 364 .

Ekphantos 182

Ekron 53

Elagabalus 67

Elephantine 15, 17, 22, 33, 67, 71, 275, 345

El-Haram el-Kaddab 12

Eliakim 57

Eliam 251

El-kab 17, 34

El-lahun 330

El-Magar 174

Elysian Fields 210

Epiphi 45

Erasmus 124

Erman 5, 149

Esarhaddon 54

Esneh 15, 71, 330, 340

Ethiopia 17, 19, 21, 22, 23, 51, 54, 55, 64, 346

Ethiopians 37, 43, 44, 51, 53, 55, 57, 66, 211, 330

Etruscans 45

Euphantos 182

Euphrates 30, 251, 252

Europeans, massacre of 68

2C 2

388

INDEX.

Eusebius 9, 113 Evagoras 62, 63 Exodus 27, 45, 113 Eye, symbolic 263 Ezekiel quoted 190

Fabricius 178

Fan, the Egyptian 236

Fayyurn 21, 22, 72, 330

Fingers, amulet of 266

Fishes mummied 355

Flaminian Obelisk 119

Flavius Yopiscus 187

Floriana 183

Fontana 202

Forrer quoted 192, 193

Forster 189

Franz 110

Frog 265, 357

Gaisford 113

Gallus 66

Gaza 32

Gebel Alaki 44

„ Barkal 51, 55, 330

Genesis quoted 179

George 355

Germanicus 67

Gerspach 193

Gezer 50

Gibraltar 57

Gilukhipa 36

Giorgi 4

Gizeh 34, 184, 219, 311, 317 „ pyramids of 12, 14, 15, „ mastabas at 330

Gnostics 252, 287

Gobelins, Museum of 193

331

Gods of Egypt : —

Amen 39, 49, 65, 158, 220, 221,

251 Amen-Ra 19, 28, 29, 31, 34, 36,

37, 39, 42, 47, 50, 51, 71, 73,

75, 119, 157, 171, 246, 267,

268, 269 Amsu 71, 269, 270 An-heru 285, 286 Anpu (Anubis) 73, 158, 164, 165,

166, 170, 186, 189, 216, 221,

279, 280, 313 Anqet 283, 285 Apis 11, 51, 60, 65, 281, 282 Ap uat 71, 165, 166, 221, 313 Atmu 75, 272 Bast 75, 288 Bes 229, 264, 285, 287 Chensu (Chonsu) 47, 48, 267, 268,

271, 272 Chensu-nefer-hetep 272 Chensu-pa-chrat 272 Chepera 221, 234, 251, 275 Hapi (Apis) 11, 51, 60, 65, 281,

282 Hapi (Nile) 281 Hapi 284

Harmachis 14, 34, 270 Harpocrates 271 Hathor 71, 73, 264, 266, 290, 291 Heru-behutet 71 Heru-chent-chati 75 Heru-pa-chrat 271 Heru-shefit 73 Horus 71, 73, 75, 186, 221, 251,

270, 271 Hu 75

I-em-hetep (Imouthis) 274 Isis 67, 75, 156, 166, 186, 216,

256, 268, 278, 279

INDEX.

389

Gods of Egypt : — Maahes 294, 295 Maat 165, 221, 290, 291 Menhit 289

Menthu-Ra 42, 71, 211, 271 Mestha 283 Mnevis 281

Mut 34, 116, 268, 289, 290 Necheb 71

Nefer-Atmu 222, 267, 273 Neheb ka 295 Nephthys 161, 166, 186, 199, 217,

268, 278, 279, 307 Net (Neith) 58, 60, 73, 161, 199,

289, 290 Nu 292, 293 Nut 165, 166, 293, 306 Osiris 44, 156, 159, 162, 170, 175,

177, 211, 216, 219, 238, 268,

277 Ptah 21, 43, 45, 47, 225, 265,

268, 273 Ptah-Seker-Ausar 125, 274 Ptah-Ta-tenen 274 Qebhsennuf 284 Ra 36, 75, 170, 216, 221, 251,

268, 270 Ra Harmachis 15, 44, 222 Sati 283, 285 Seb 165, 166, 293, 294 Sebek 284, 286 Sechet 225, 288, 340 Seker 295 Selket 199 Sept 75 Serapis 67, 282 Serq 294

Set 29, 40, 276, 277 Shu 165, 166, 172, 280 Sut 73

Gods of Egypt : —

Tefnut 281

Thoth 71,75, 186, 209, 239, 275, 276

Thoueris 296, 297

Tuamautef 284

“Hatch 75 Golenischeff 361 Goodwin 238 Gordon 68 Goulianoff 152 Granville 190 Greaves 189 Greece 185, 187 Greeks 34, 40, 58, 61, 63, 65, 191,

their trade in Egypt 59 Grenfell, Sir Francis 228 Gronov 178 Guieyesse 208 Gutschmid 111 Gyges 55

Hadrian 67

Hair pins 227

Haker 62

Hamilton 330

Hamitic 6

Hammamat 18, 21, 23, 47, 59, 65

Hapi (Apis) 11, 51, 60, 65, 281, 282

Hapi (Nile) 281

Hapi 161, 195, 196, 197, 199, 200,

216, 217, 284 Harmachis 14, 34, 270 Harpocrates 271 Harris Papyrus 47 Harrow School Catalogue 246 Hathor 71, 73, 264, 266, 290, 291 Hatshepset 30, 31, 32, 44 Hawk 357 Hawkins 203

390

INDEX.

Heart, amulet of 262

Hebermu 164, 358

Hebit 165

Hebrew lanojua^e 4

Hebrews 8

Hecataeus 112

Heliogabalus 187

Heliopolis 19, 33, 34, 36, 39, 43, 46,

52,56, 65, 75, 119, 208, 282 Hellanitus 112 Henna 162 Hennu 18 Heptanomis 8 Heq-ab 227 Heracleopolis 22 Heracleopolites 8 Heraclius 68 Her-Heru-se-Amen 52 Hermann 113, 118 Hermapion 112, 118—120 Hermonthis 71 Hermopolis 52, 71, 75, 237 Hermopolites 8 Herodotus 3, 22, 59, 112, 177, 183,

190, 282, 332, 335, 336, 337, 338 Her-shef 359 Heru 211 Heru-behutet 71 Heru-chent-chati 75 Heru-em-heb 37, 303 Heru-men-kau 15 Heru-pa-chrat 371 Heru-sha 17, 18 Heru-ta-ta-f 237 Hesep-ti 11, 208, 238 Het-Hert-hent taui 49 Het-Heru 52 Het-Ptah-ka 11 Het-suten 37 Heyne 110

Hezekiah 53, 54 Hibbert Lectures 7 Hieraconpolis 71 Hieratic 353 Hieroglyphics 353 Hieroglyphic Signs, list of 366 flf. ,, Determinatives 375 —

381 Hincks 152, 244 Hipponus 73 Hittites 39 Hddo the scribe 250 Hoffmann 187 Homer 113, 114, 117 Honey used in embalming 183 Hophra’ 58 Horapollo 112, 115, 116, 123, 124,

233 Horse, the, in Egypt 29 Horus 71, 73, 75, 186, 221, 251,

270, 271 Horus, king 37

„ cippi of 358

„ children of 160, 164, 315

„ followers of 9 Hoshea 53 Hu 75 Hycsos 25

Hyksos 9, 26, 29, 158, 204, 220, 276 Hypselis 71

Ialysos 248 Ia6 Saba6th 288 Ibis 357 Ibn Betar 174 Ibrahim Pasha 68 Ichneumon 356 I-em-hetep 274 Inarus 61 India 112

INDEX. 391

Ink, Egyptian 352

Kallimma-Sin 36

lonians 56

Ka-mes 29

Iphi crates 63

Kamiros 246, 248

Isis 67, 75,156,166,186,

216, 256,

Kamt 7

268, 278, 279

Kantarah 39

Isis-Sothis 284

Karaduniyash 36

Israel in Egypt 27

Karbanit 54

Issus 65

Karei 34

Isthmus of Suez 1

Karnak 10, 21, 31, 33, 34, 37, 39, 40, 51, 53, 67

Jablonski 124

Kash 21

Jacob 21, 179

Kehak 45

Janelli 153

Kem-tau 252

Jehoahaz 57

Kerama 50

Jehoiachin 58

Khabur 251, 252

Jehoiakim 57, 58

Kiessling 113

Jeremiah quoted 58, 230

King 249

Jeroboam 50

Kings of Egypt, cartouches of ar-

Jerusalem 28, 50, 58, 67,

209

ranged chronologically : —

Jews 44, 53, 57, 174, 175,

209

Jezebel 230

First Dynasty

John 187, 348

Mena (Menes) 77

Jomard 190, 203, 330

Teta 77

Jonias 25

Ate0 77

Joseph 27, 341

Ata 77

Josephus quoted 9, 24, 26,

28, 113

Hesep-ti 77

Joshua 29

Mer-ba-pen 77

Josiah 57

Semen-Ptah 77

Judaea 28, 53, 54, 174

Qebh 77

Judah 50, 53, 54, 57

Julien, Fort Saint 108

Second Dynasty

Julius Africanus 9

Neter-baiu 77

Justinian 68

Ka-kau 77 Ba-en-neter 77

Ka, or " double,” the 328

Uatch-nes 77

Kabasos 75

Senta 77

Kadesh 32, 33, 39, 40, 42

Per-ab-sen 77

Ka-kam 340

Nefer-ka-Ra 77

Ka-kau 282

Nefer-ka-seker 77

Kalabshi 40, 44

Hetchefa 77

392

INDEX.

Kings of Egypt : —

Third Dynasty

Tchatchai 78

Neb-ka 78

Ser (Tcheser) 78

Teta 78

Setches 78

Serteta 78

Ahtes 78

Neb-ka-Pa 78

Nefer-ka-Pa or Huni 78

Fourth Dynasty Seneferu 78 Chufu (Cheops) 78 Chafra (Chephren) 78 Menkaura, (Mycerinus) 78 Tetfra 78 Shepseskaf 78 Sebekkara 78 Iemhetep 78

Fifth Dynasty Usrkaf 79 Sahura 79 Kakaa 79 Shepseskara 79 Heruakau 79 An 79.

Menkauheru 79 Assa 79 Unas 79

Sixth Dynasty Teta 79 Ati 80 Pepi I. 80 Heruemsaf 80 Pepi II. 80 Ramerensemsaf 80 Neterkara 80 Netagerti (Nitocris) 80

Kings of Egypt : —

Seventh — Tenth Dynasties Neferka 80 Neferseh… 80 Ab 80 ’ Neferkaura 80 Chai-thi 80 Neferkara 80 Neferkara-Nebi 80 Tetkaramaa… 80 Neferkaraxentu 81 Merenheru 81 Seneferkara, 81 Kaenra, 81 Neferkaratrer(?) 81 Neferkaheru 81 Neferkara-Pepi-senb 81 Neferkara-annu 81 Neferkaura 81 Neferkauheru 81 Neferkaarira, 81

Eleventh Dynasty Autef 81

Mentu-hetep (?) 81 Antef 81 Antef 81 Antef (?) 81 Antef 81 An-aa 82 Antuf 82 Antuf-aa 82 Antef-aa 82 Antef 82 Seneferkara 82 Pa… 82 Usr-en-Ra 82 Nebnemra 82 Menthuhetep I. 82 Menthuhetep II. 82

INDEX

393

Kings of Egypt : — Menthuhetep III. 82 Menthuhetep IV. 82 Menthuhetep V. 83 Seanchkara 83

Twelfth Dynasty

Amenemhat I. 83

Usertsen I. 83

Amenemhat II. 83

Usertsen II. 83

Usertsen III. 83

Amenemhat III. 83

Amenemhat IV. 83

Sebekneferura 83

Thirteenth Dynasty

Chu-taiu-Ra 84

CJ,ierp-ka-Ra 84

[Amenjemhat 84

Sehetepabra 84 Aufna 84

Ameni-Antef-Amenemhat 84 Semenkara 84 Sehetepabra 84

…… ka 84

Netchemabra 84 Sebekhetepra 84 Ren… 84 Setchef…ra 84 Sebekhetep I. 84 Mermenfitu 84 Sebekhetep II. 84 Neferhetep 85 Hetheruse 85 Sebekhetep III. 85 Sebekhetep IV. 85 Uahabra-aaab 85 Chacherura, 85 Nebfaamerra 85 Neferabra 85

Kings of Egypt : — Sebekhetep V. 85 Mercherpra 85 A nab 85 Sebekemsaf I. 86 II. 86 Cherpuastra 86 Rahetep 86

Fourteenth Dynasty Ai 86 Ana 86

Seanchensehtu-Ra 86 Mercherpra-anren 86 Seuatchenra, 86 Chakara, 86 Kamerira 86 Sehebra 86 Stakara 86 Mertchefara 86 Nebtchefara 86 Ubenra 87 Herabra 87 Nebsenra 87 Seuahenra 87 Secheperenra, 87 Tetcherura 87

Fifteenth Dynasty ISTubset 87 …Banan 87 Abehenchepesh 87 Apepa 87

Sixteenth Dynasty Apepa 87

Seventeenth Dynasty Tauaa 87 Tauaaaa 88 Tauaaqen 88 Kames 88

394

INDEX.

Kings of Egypt : —

Kings of Egypt : —

Aahhetep 88

Twenty-first Dynasty

Aahmessepaari 88

Se-Mentu 93

Eighteenth Dynasty

Pasebchanu 93

Amasis I. 88

93

Amenophis I. 88

Amenemapt 93

Thothmes I. 88

Pasebchanu 93

Thotkmes II. 89

Her-Heru 93

Hatshepset 89

Pa-anch 93

Thothmes III. 89

Painetchem I. 94

Amenophis II. 89

II. 94

Thothmes IV. 89

Masaherth 94

Amenophis III. 89

Mencheperra, 94

Amenophis IV. 89

Painetchem III. 94

Seaakanechtcheperura 90

Twenty -second Dynasty

Tutanchamen 90

Ai 90

Shashanq I. 94

Osorkon I. 94

Heruemheb 90

Thekeleth I. 95

Nineteenth Dynasty

Osorkon II. 95

Rameses I. 90

Shashanq 95

Seti I. 90

Thekeleth II. 95

Rameses II. 90

Shashanq III. 95

Meneptah I. 91

Pamai 95

Amenmeses 91

Seti II. 91

Twenty-third Dynasty

Meneptah II. 91 Setnecht 91

Peta-Bast 95 Osorkon III. 95

Twentieth Dynasty

Twenty -fourth Dynasty

Rameses III. 91

Bakenrenf 96

IV. 91

Kashta 96

„ V. 91

P-anchi I. 96

VI. 92

„ II. 96

VII. 92

Twenty-sixth Dynasty

VIII. 92

Sabaco 96

IX. 92

Shabataka 96

X. 92

Tirhakah 96

XL 92

Amenrut 96

XII. 92

Psammetichus I. 97

XIII. 92

Necho II. 97

INDEX.

395

Kings of Egypt : —

Psammetichus II. 97 Apries 97 Amasis II. 97 Psammetichus III. 97

Twenty -seventh Dynasty Cambyses 97 Darius Hystaspes 98 Xerxes 98 Artaxerxes 98 Darius Xerxes 98

Twenty-eighth Dynasty Chabbesha 98

Twenty -ninth Dynasty “Naifaarut 98 Haker 98 Psemut 98

Thirtieth Dynasty Nectanebus I. 99 II. 99

Kircher 119, 124, 175 Klaproth 152 Kochome 11, 340 Kohl pots 227 Konosso 18, 24 Kopp 4 Kosseir 46

Kouyunjik 53, 249, 330 K rumba cher 113 Kiihn 174 Kullah 330 Kummeh 22, 218 Kurnah 218, 253 Kynopolis 73

Labyrinth 22, 23 Lacedaemonians 62 Lacour 126

Lad ike 59

Lagarde 4, 175

Lagus 66

Lamellicorns 232

Land quoted 255

Lanzone 215, 217, 234, 265, 287,

291, 294, 361 Larcher 189 Lateran 33 Latopolis 71 Latreille 232, 233 Latus fish 300 Lebu 45

Leemans 7, 115, 124, 207, 233 Lefebure 208, 265 Leitch, J. 133 Leku 45, 46 Lenoir 126 Lenormant 1, 110 Lepidotus fish 300 Lepsius 1, 4, 6, 10, 19, 69, 109, 152,

203, 204, 206, 219, 230, 238, 307,

311, 330, 331, 362 Letopolis 73 Letronne 110, 120 Libya 61, 65 Libyans 43, 45, 57, 58 Lieblein 10 Limanen 39

Loftie, his work on Scarabs 246 Loret 211 Loudon 33 Louvre 246 Lucian 179 Luxor 34, 47 Lycians 45 Lycopolis 71 Lydia 55

Maahes 294, 295

396

INDEX.

Maat 165, 221, 290, 291

Maat-ka-Ra 49

Maa-ur-neferu-Ra 43

Macedon 64

Macedonians 15

Macrinus 67

Mafkata 12

Mahdi 22

Malta 183

Mamun 331

Manetho 9, 10, 11, 23, 24, 26, 27,

28, 37, 66, 77, 176, 340, 341, 342 Marcianus 68 Marcus Aurelius 67 Mariette 1, 9, 10, 14, 23, 69, 211,

212, 213, 282, 318, 324, 325, 330,

340, 341, 343, 346 Mark, Saint 67, 310, 353 Maroi 45 Marusar 40 Ma’sara 62 Mashuasha 45, 46, 50 Maspero 1, 49, 151, 164, 165, 184,

203, 209, 257, 306, 340, 347 Mastabas 317—328 Mastabat el-Far’iin 340, 341, 312 Mas’udi 330 Matui 19 Maty 189 Mautenure 40, 43 Mecca 209

Medinet Habu 46, 47, 56, 60, 67 Mediterranean 32 Mediim, pyramid of 12, 343 Megiddo 32, 57 Meh 21 Mehen 301 Melik el-Kamil 331 Menmon 67

Colossus of 34

Memphis 8, 9, 10, 19, 21, 24, 25, 29, 33, 34, 36, 37, 39, 46, 52, 54, 55, 56, 59, 61, 63, 64, 73, 109, 110, 185, 282, 309, 341, 342

Memphites 8

Memphitic Coptic 355

Mena 246

Menat amulet 265

Menat-Chufu 21

Mendes 56, 62, 64, 65, 75

Menelaus 194

Menes 9, 10, 11

Menhit 289

Menkaura, see Mycerinus

Men-nefer 342

Men-nefert 10

Menthu-em-hat 227

Menthu-em-sa-f 230

Menthu(Mentu)-hetep 18, 21, 307

Menthu-Ra 42, 71, 211, 271

Menzaleh, Lak 355

Mer-ba-pen 10, 11

Mercati 125

Mercator 8

Mer-en-Ptah 45

Mer-en-Ra 17

Meroe 112, 330

Mer-sekem 251

Merseker 301

Mesopotamia 7, 30, 32, 33, 34, 39, 48, 50, 57, 243, 250, 252

Mesopotamians 32, 33, 34, 43

Mesori 51

Mestha 161, 195, 196, 197, 199, 216, 217, 283

Metelis 75

Metternich Stele 287, 361

Meyer 1

Migdol 39

Miletus 112

INDEX.

397

Mirrors 225

Misraim 8

Mitani 8, 36

Mnevis Bull 281, 283

Moeris, Lake 22, 23, 67

Mokattam 332, 343

Momeniphis 58

Mommsen quoted 111, 112

Month, the little 361

Months, the Egyptian 363 „ names in Arabic 363 „ names in Coptic 363 ,, names in Greek 363

Moses 340

Mostansser-Billah 193

Muhammad <Ali 68, 331, 361

Mukattam Hills 56

Muller, Max 5, 7

Mulsant 233

Mummy, meaning of the word 173 „ cloth 189

Mummies, how made 174 ff.

Murray, A. S. 247

Mushezib-Marduk 252

Musur 8

Mut 34, 116, 268, 289, 290

Mut-em-Mennu 181

Mycerinus 15, 17, 184, 208, 237,

306, 311, 331, 337, 338 Mytilene 112

Nahr el-kelb 54 Nai, illustration 302 Naifaarut I. 62 „ II. 62 Napata 43, 51, 52 Napoleon 68 Naram-Sin 18 Naucratis 59, 112, 247, 248, 249

Naville 163, 172, 205, 206, 214, 236, 237, 238, 259, 263, 266

Nebseni, Papyrus of 207

Neb-set (Nebqet), Papyrus of 207

Nebt-hetep 359

Nebuchadnezzar II. 57, 58

Necheb 71

Nechebet 359

Necho II. 56, 57, 60

Necht-neb-f 62

Nectanebus I. 62, 63, 314, 361 II. 63, 64

Nefer amulet 264

Nefer-as-u 340

Nefer-Atmu 222, 267, 273

Nefer-hetep 24

Nefer-ka-Ra 17

Nefer-ka-Seker 11

Negative Confession 182

Neha amulet 265

Neheb-ka 295

Nehern 30

Neherna 34

Neith 58, 60, 73, 161, 199, 289, 290

Nemart 50

Nepherites 62

Nephthys 161, 166, 186, 199, 217, 268, 278, 279, 307

Nero 67, 112

Nesi-Chensu 224

Nesi-pa-ur-shef 165, 308

Nes-Mut 211

New York 33

NT 33, 252

Nicholson, Sir Charles 288

Niebuhr 330

Nikii 55

Nile 7, 8, 10, 19, 22, 33, 39, 46, 52, 56, 58, 61, 63, 67, 108, 110, 168, 170, 315, 318, 334, 236, 344

398

INDEX.

Nilopolis 73 Nimrod 50, 52 Nineveh 32, 53, 54, 55 Nitaqert 17, 59

Nitetis 59

Nitocris 17

Nomes of Egypt 71—76

Nu 292, 293

Nubia 21, 29, 30, 33, 34, 36, 37,

39, 40, 44, 46, 54, 56, 211, 243,

275 Nubians 33, 60 Nubti 26, 27, 43 Numbers, Egyptian and Coptic 304,

365 Nut 165, 166, 293, 306 Nut- Am en 55

Oases, the 8 Oasis 60 Ochus 64 Oi Meneptah 312 Orontes 33, 39, 40, 42 Orpheus 155, 156 Osiris 44, 156, 159, 162, 170, 175, 177, 211, 216, 219, 238, 268, 277 Osiris, Tomb of, at Abydos 9 Owen, the late Prof. 2 Oxyrhynchites 8 Oxyrhynchus 73 Oxyrhynchus fish 300

Pa-aru-shep 45

Pa-Bairo 45

Pa-Bast 289

Padi 53

Pahlin 126

Palestine 30, 39, 50, 54, 57

Palette, the Egyptian 350

Palmyra 67

Palzir-shemesh 250

Pamai 51

Panopolis 71, 191, 192, 217

Papremis 61

Papyrus, Egyptian 349

Papyrus amulet 261

Parma 237

Pa-seb-cha-nut I. 49

II. 49 Patchetku 29 Pausiris 61 Peka 168

Pelusium 43, 59, 64 Pen-ta-urt 40, 43 Pepi I. 17, 184, 203, 219, 230, 341

„ II. 17, 184, 203, 219, 345 Perring 330 Persia 59, 61, 62, 65 Persians 59, 61, 62, 63, 64, 68, 174,

331 Peta-Bast 51 Peteti 363 Petrie 330 Pettigrew 175, 195 Phagrus fish 300 Phakussa 75

Pharaoh, meaning of the name 76 Pharnabazus 63 Pharos 66 Philae 65, 275 Philip 123 Philition 337 Phoenicia 53, 58, 63, 64 Phoenicians 26, 54, 248 Physiologus quoted 255 Pianchi, King of Egypt 51, 52, 53,

55 Pianchi 52 Piazza del Popolo 119 Pierret 207, 208, 263, 265

INDEX.

399

Pillows 210 Pi-netchem I. 49

II. 49

III. 49 Pisentios 187, 348, 349 Pitliom 44, 56 Pleyte 208

Pliny 8, 232, 330 Plutarch 181, 277, 349 Pococke 330 Pompey’s Pillar 67 Pomponius Mela 178 Porphyry 123, 181, 233 Price, F. G. Hilton 287 Prisse 10, 15 Probus 67

Proverbs quoted 190 Psammetichus I. 55, 56, 247

II. 58

III. 59 Psammuthis 62 P-se-mut 62 Pseudo-Callisthenes 64 Psychostasia 238

Ptah 21, 43, 45, 47, 225; 265, 268,

273 Ptah-Seker-Ausar 125,215,216,255,

274 Ptah-Ta-tenen 274 Ptah, temple of at Memphis 10 Ptah-hetep 323, 353

„ Precepts of 15

Ptolemies 66, 186, 306, 310, 314,

348 Ptolemy the Geographer 8 Ptolemy I. 9, 66, 99

II. 9, 66, 100

III. 66, 100, 108, 354 „ IV. 100

V. 101, 109, 110, 301, 354

Ptolemy VI. 101

VII. 101

VIII. 101

IX. 101

X. 102

XI. 102

XII. 102

XIII. 102 Punt 18, 23, 31, 32, 39, 46 Pyramid, the Great 331, 333

the Second 335

the Third 337

the Step 340

the Blunted 342

of Pepi I. 341

of Teta 341

of Unas 340

of Medum 343 Pyramid texts 203 Pyramids 67, 183, 328—343; battle

of 68 Pythagoras 123

Qebhsennuf 161, 195, 196, 197, 199,

200, 216, 217, 283, 284 Quatremere 4, 355

Ra 36, 75, 170, 216, 221, 251, 268,

270 Ra-Harmachis 15, 44, 222 Raamses, city of 44 Rakoti 65 Ra-meri 341 Rameses I. 37, 40, 44

II. 9, 27, 37, 39, 40—45, 51, 54, 118, 119, 230, 246, 247, 303, 336, 351 ; plans of his tomb 316 „ III. 46, 47, 312

400

INDEX.

Rameses IV. 47

V. 47

VI. 47

VII. 47

VIII. 47

IX. 47

X. 48

XI. 48

XII. 48

XIII. 48 Ramesseum 67 Ra-nefer, illustration 305 Ra-neferu 48

Ra-nub 340

Rawlinson, G. 2

Re-ant 29

Rech-ma-Ra 33

Red Sea 2, 18, 46, 56, 60, 66, 67

Reed for writing 352

Rehoboam 50

Renan 4, 5, 6

Renaudot 355

Rennutet 363

Reptiles mummied 355

Reseph 39

Resurrection, the 266

Retennu 33, 39, 49

Rhampsinitus 332

Rhodopis 339

Roman Emperors 103 — 107

Romans 66, 306, 310, 314, 331, 345

Rome 33, 67, 119

Ronelle 189

Rosellini 1, 153, 244

Rosetta Stone 108—153, 190, 354

Ruau 219

Rut- Amen 55

Ruthen 30

Sabaco 52, 53, 55, 250

Sabben 345

Sahidic Coptic 355

Sahu-Ra 15, 339

Sa’id Pasha 68

Sais 52, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 73

Sakkarah 9, 11, 17, 34, 184; Pyra- mids of 330, 342

Salamis 63

Salatis 25, 26

Salt 148

Salvo] ini 109

Sam-behutet 359

Sam amulet 264

Sam priest 168

Sapalel 40

Sarcophagi 310—315

Sardinia 248

Sardinians 45

Sarginu 50

Sargon 18, 50, 53

Sati 283, 285

Satumkhipa 36

Scarab 231—256, 301

Scarabs of Amenophis III. 240 — 245

Scaraboids 250

Schiaparelli 208, 219, 346

Schrader 53

Schwartze 4, 139, 141

Scorpion 301

Scythia 112

Se-aa-ka-Ra 37

Se-anch-ka-Ra 18

Seb 165, 166, 293, 294

Sebek 284, 286

Sebek-hetep II. 24 „ III. 24

IV. 24

V. 24

VI. 24

INDEX.

401

Sebekneferu 23

Sebennythos 75

Sebennytus 9

Sechet 225, 288, 340

Sefex-Aabu 296, 297

Seker 282, 295

Seker-em-sa-f 184, 203, 306

Select Papyri quoted 28

Selim I. 68

Selket 199

Se-mench ka 23

Semites 24, 26, 50

Semneh 22

Seneferu 11, 12

Senehet 19

Senkowski 203

Sen-mut 31

Sennacherib 53, 54, 250

Sent 11, 176, 219

Sept 75, 300

Seqenen-Ra III. 28, 29, 268

Se-Ptah 45

Septimius Severus 34, 67

Septuagint 66

Serapeum 34, 282, 340

Serapis 67, 282

Serdab 317, 322

Se-Renput 345

Serq (Serqet) 294, 301

Sesheta 297

Sesostris 8, 40

Set 29, 40, 276, 277, 297

Setil. 9, 37, 39, 40, 43, 44, 119,

215, 247, 312, 336, 346, 347 Setill. 45 Set-Necht 46 %■/,$ 276 Sethroe 75

Severus of Antioch 41 Sextus Empericus 178

B. M.

Seyffarth 152

Shaasu 26, 30, 33, 37, 39, 42, 43

Shabaka 53, 249, 250, 350

Shabataka 53

Shabtun 42

Shalmaneser II. 210, 250

Sharetana 45

Sharezer 54

Sharhana 29

Sharpe 109, 124, 199

Sharuhen 29

Shashanq I. 50

II. 50

III. 51 „ IV. 51

Shaw 330

Shekelasha 45, 46

Shekh el-Beled 16, 304, 325

Shen amulet 264

Shep-en-apt 55, 56

Shepherd Kings 25, 26, 28

Shera 219, 353

Shesh 177

Shishak 50

Shrew-mice 356

Shu 165, 166, 172, 180

Shuti-Qenna 207

Sicilians 45

Sidon 58, 64

Sidonians 64

Silco 68

Silius Italicus 178

Silurus fish 300

Sinai 12, 15, 17, 18, 21, 23, 24, 32,

33, copper mines of 46, 339 Sirius 361 Smith, A. H. 247 Smith, Sir C. Holled 316 Smith, Payne, Dean 231 Smith, Philip 1

2D

402

INDEX.

Snake 357

Soane Museum 312

Sogdianus 61

Solander 189

Soleb 34

Solomon 49, 50

Somali land 39

Sphinx, the 14, 15, 34, 298

Sphinxes, Avenue of 34

Spohn 152

Stelae 218—222

Step Pyramid 11

Stern 4, 117, 244, 355, 364

Strabo 112, 113, 191, 346

Strassmaier 7

Sudan 68, 211

Suez Canal 56, 68

Suidas 113

Sut 27, 73

Sutech 27, 276

Syene 8, 67

Syria 23, 28, 30, 32, 33, 36, 39, 43,

53, 63 Syrians, 33, 37, 39, 43

Tachos 63

Tacitus 67

Tafnecht 52

Taharqa, see Tirhakah

Tale of Two Brothers 158

Ta-meh 8

Ta-mera 7

Tanis 21, 22, 23, 27, 32, 43, 75

Ta-qema 8

Ta-res 8

Ta-she 22

Ta-ta-nub-hetep 199

Tau-aa-qen 28

Ta-urt 296—298

Tchah 40

Tchahi 29

Tcharuxa 245

Tchehra 63

Tchemi 187

Techi 363

Tefnut 281

Tehuti-em-heb 48

Tell el-Amarna 36, 37, 230

Tell el-Yahudiyeh 46

Tennes 64

Tentyris 71

Teos 63

Tertullian 187

Tet amulet 259

Teta 11, 17, 176, 203, 219,341

Tet-asu 341

Tet-ka-Ra 15

Thannyros 61

Tharros 248, 249

Thebaid 8

Thebes 19, 23, 28, 29, 30, 31, 33, 36, 37, 40, 42, 43, 46, 49, 51, 52, 54, 55, 56, 62, 65, 67, 71, 112, 157, 187, 218, 255, 268, 307, 309, 344

Thebes in Boeotia 249

Thekeleth I. 50 „ II. 51

Theodosius I. 68 II. 68

Thi 36, 37, 227, 242, 244

Thierbach 121

This 9, 10

Thomson 190

Thoth 71, 75, 186, 209, 239, 275, 276

Thothmes I. 30, 220, 222, 247, 252

II. 30, 31

III. 10, 14, 30, 31, 32, 39, 40, 46, 119, 224, 230, 236, 246, 247, 251, 253

INDEX.

403

Thothmes IV. 14, 33, 34

Thoueris 296, 297

Thummosis 28

Ti 305

Tiberius 67

Tiglath 50

Tiglath-Pileser I. 36

Tigris 30, 33

Timaus 24

Time, divisions of 362

Tirhakah 54, 55

Titi 45

Tmu, see Atmu

Todtenbuch 202

Tomb, the Egyptian 315 ff.

Tombs, of the kings 67, 159, 346

Tombs, Theban 343 ff.

Tombs used by Christians 348

Tomlinson 120

Trajan 67

Tuamautef 161, 195, 196, 197, 199,

’ 200, 216, 217, 283, 284

Tukulti 50

Tiiman Bey 68

Tunep 33, 42

Turah 17, 62

Turin 203

„ papyrus 9, 23, 207, 208 Tursha 45 Tushratta 8, 36 Tut-anch-Amen 37, 227 Tutu 157, 170, 171 Tweezers 226 Tyre 54, 58 Tzetzes 113, 117

Uatch (Uatchet) 75, 359, 360 Uauat 19 Uenephes 340 Una 17, 219

Unas 17, 203, 230, 340, 341

Underworld, Book of 313, 347

Ungarelli 119

Ur 335

Urdamanah 55

Usarken (Osorkon) I. 50 II. 50 HI. 51

Userkaf 15

Usertsen I. 19, 21, 345

II. 21, 230

III. 21, 22 Ushabtiu figures 171, 211—215 Utcha-Heru-en-pe-resu 60 Utchat 264

Valerian 30

Valerianus 67, 125

Van, Lake 33

Vases 222

Vatican 60

Vespasian 67

Vulture amulet 260

Vyse 184, 306, 330, 333, 337, 340

Wadi Habib 39

Wadi Halfah 22, 316

Wadi Ma’arah 12, 17

Warburton 126

Westwood, 232

Wheat, winnowing of 326

Whiston 26, 28

White 175

Wiedemann 1, 3, 27, 49, 62, 150,

155, 173, 179, 182, 335 Wild fowl, netting of 326 Wilkins 355 Wilkinson 69, 190, 218, 224, 253,

330 William of Baldensel 335 Woide 355

404

Wright, the late Prof. W. Writing, Egyptian 353

INDEX.

4,5

his alphabet 141; opinions of scholars upon 148 — 152

Xerxes I. 61 „ II. 61

Yates 187, 190, 191

Year, the Egyptian 361

Young, Thomas 109, 126; sketch of his life 127—129; his work on the Eosetta Stone 132 ff.; account of his discoveries 138;

Zawyet el-‘Aryan 330

Zedekiah 58

Z. D. M. G. quoted 5

Zeno 68

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