Ain-i-Akbari, Vol. III

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PREFACE. 7 Gh

advanced an opinion without strong or at least plausible reasons in its support. It is natural to expect that historians of a dominant, proselytising and intolerant creed. like that of Islam, who seldom spoke of the Hindu

md their beliefs without consigning them to perdition

be at little pains to understand the tenets they con

s idolatry, and regarding them from the point o

1eir professoys, to set them forth in the dry ligh

philosophical inquiry. But this is what Abul Faz

hsan i Fani—to mention only these two—explicitly

to have done, and Sir William Jones’ sweepin

» may be tempered by his opinion of the latter writer meother passage of his works where he calls.him ¢ learned and accurate author. It is doubtful whether th

MSS. of the Ain at that time available, allowed him to read the chapters on Hindu philosophy so as to judge of the fidelity of its. exposition. He mentions Abul. Faal’ name, to the best of my recollection, but once again in! connection with the chapter on music, which he des- cribes as superficial, No work of Abul Fazl’s, nor any on Hindu philosophy appears in the catalogue of Oriental MSS. in his possession. Nevertheless his assurance must suffice, and to so brilliant an intellect and so omnivorous a reader who had read twice through the whole Shahndmah and once the entire mystical poem of Jalalu’ddin Rimi in manuscript; who had perused and translated innumerable other works on almost all branches of Eastern and Western literature, not to mention the works of, and five commentaries on, Confucius in Chinese, the additional ‘volumes of Abul Fazk woyld have been of little account. To the charge of a vicious transliteration of Sanskrit terms into Arabic, ali these writers, inolyding the greater name of Albirdni, are more just- ly amenable, and I have occasionally pointed out in the notes to the text, the almost unintelligible form of Abul faal’s

I

iv PREFACE.

transcripts. This was in a large measure due to ignorance of Sanskrit and the absence of any precise system of the pho- netic representation of its letters. But when we observe even in modern times, the same fault among the Orientalists of he West and the vagaries of transliteration in Freytag eil, Hammer-Purgstall, De Guignes, D’Herbelot, ckley and a host of others, the reproach canno ointed at Muhammedan writers alone. The di elt by Albirani with a pathetic acknowledgme ‘opelessness of remedy. ‘Some of the consona ays (I employ Sachau’s translation with some fr ‘of which the language is composed are neither i ith those of Arabic and Persian nor resemble them i way. Our tongue and-uvula can scarcely manage to pro- nounce them correctly, nor our ears distinguish them from ’ similar sounds, nor can we transliterate them accurately. t is very difficult, therefore, to express an Indian word in our writing, for in order to fix the pronunciation we must change our orthographical points and signs, and must pronounce the case-endings either according to the common Arabic rules or according fo special rules adapted for the purpose. Add to this, that the Indian scribes are careless ane do not take pains to produce correct and well

ad copies. In consequence, the highest results of the

ental development are lost by their negligence, ok becomes in the first or second copy so full of the text appears as something entirely new. It nily illustrate the matter if we tell the reader, have sometimes written down a word from the jindus, taking the greatest pains to fix its. pro- mi, and that afterwards when-we repeated it to

had great difficulty in recognising it?

indicated at the beginning of the 2nd Volume king resemblance of a passage in the text to the

PREFACE. Vv

opening of the third chapter of Albirtmi’s Chronology and suggested a plagiarism. After a careful study of both these authors, I am the more convinced that Abul Fazl borrowed the idea and arrangement of his work from his great prede- cessor. I have shown in his account of the Sark4r of K4bul instances of direct plagiarism from the Memoirs of Baber, and in his lives of Moslem Saints in the third Volume; verbatim extracts without acknowledgment from the Sific hagiography of Jd4mi. The same volume displays other examples, suggestive “ther than definite, of his indebtedness to an author whom he never names. The difference be- tween the two men in this particular is most remarkable. Albirani’s reading was far more extensive and scholarly. The Sanskrit sources of his chapters are almost always given, and Sachau’s preface has a list of the many authors quoted by him on astronomy, chronology, geography, and astrology. He was also acquainted with Greek literature through Arabic translations; and in comparing its language and thought and those of Hindu metaphysics, selects his quota- tions from the Timceus and its commentator the Neo-Platonist Proclus, with judgment and rare ability. His list of: Greek authors, among others, includes Aristotle, Johannes Grammaticus, Porphyry, Apollonius, Aratus, Galenus, and Ptolemy. Zoroastrian, Christian, Jewish, Manichean and Safi sources are indicated by him, and he rarely fails to record his authorities. With Abul Fazl it is the reverse. He rarely names them, and borrows from every side without scruple as without avowal. The difference in the manner of the two authors is not less conspicuous: Albirini quotes freely from his authorities and where these seem to exaggerate or to be inaccurate, his citations are followed by some sharp brief commentary which gives a ceaseless interest to his pages. Especially is this the case where their assertions can be brought to the searching test of

vi PREFACE.

mathematics to which he subjected the data of Indian astronomers in his examination of their system. In this latter science, according to his own account, he stood pre- eminent, and on his visit to India he had to learn, as a pupil, their national and traditional methods, but after he had made some progress, he began to act the teacher and to show them the scientific methods of mathematics in general, and they flocked from all parts to hear him, wondering from what Hindu Master he had learnt these things, and giving him the epithet of “The Sea.” His treatment of these topics: is throughout scholarly, showing extensive reading and precision of thought acquired by a study of the exact sciences. Abul Fazl, on the contrary, transcribes either from existing works oz from oral communication. His compilation is extremely careful and carried out with the most laborious and marvellous exactitude, but it is unenlivened by those masterly criticisms which give Albirini his unique position among Eastern writers. It is certain that Albirani’s India was made use of largely by several authors, among them al-Gardezi who re-pro- duced his account of the S’aka era, and Rashidu’ddin, who transferred the whole of Chapter xviiiinto his chronicle. (Cf. Sachau. Pref. xliii). I have no hesitation in adding to these two the name of Abul Fazl. The charge of plagia- rism against an Eastern writer is too common to be offen- sive. Nearly all are obnoxious to a reproach of which apparently they are unconscious, as none prefers it against another. The prevalence of the custom may condone its laxity among ordinary writers, but the great reputation, the bold and independent mind of Abul Fazl commands and deserves a nobler estimation, and the practice is unworthy of his fame. It is remarkable that he had intended, as he says, to arrange the Hindu systems of philosophy in due order and to weigh them with those of the Grecian and Persian

PREFACE. vii

schools. Albirdni in his preface expresses the same inten- tion, which he practically carried out, mentioning similar theories among the Greeks as well as the ideas of the Sifts and of some one or other Christian sect, in order to show the relationship existing between them, and that in the pantheistic doctrine of the unity of God there is much in common between these systems. The coincidence strength- ens the strong probability of Abul Fazl’s use of Albirini’s work, but he wisely refrained from undertaking a task which, I suspect, was beyond him and would have indicated too plainly the source of his erudition.

When all is said, however, which a strict impartiality must weigh in counterpoise to his sterling merits, there re- mains ample justification for the high place held by this great work in the West as well as the East, and as a record of the extension of the Moghul empire of India under the greatest of its monarchs and the ability with which it was administered, it must always remain of permanent ‘and fascinating interest. It crystallizes and records in brief, for all time, the state cf Hindu learning, and besides its statistical utility, serves as an admirable treatise of reference on numerous branches of Brahmanical science and on the manners, beliefs, traditions, and indigenous lore, which for the most part still retain and will long continue their hold on the popular mind. Above all, as a register of the fiscal areas, the revenue settlements and changes introduced at various periods, the harvest returns, valuations and imposts throughout the provinces of the empire, its originality is as indisputable as its surpass- ing historical importance. The concluding account of the authoy and his family and the persecutions to which they were’ subjected will, perhaps, be read with as much interest las any other portion of the work. The wanderings from house to house and refuge to refuge, of his father, his bro- ther Faizi and himself, are told with an unconscious humour

Vili - PREFACE,

which its figurative and florid style render irresistibly droll in the original, and no finer or more biting comment on the worth and constancy of Eastern friendships was ever penned than may be found running like figured threads through the woven picture of this inimitable narrative. The notes to the text form a sufficient comment on the subjects with which it deals, and dispense with a further notice of them in this place. As to the manner in which the original has been rendered into English, I have studied to fulfil the aim of the greatest among Roman orators in translating two of the most celebrated orations of the greatest among the Greeks; in quibus non verbum pro verbo necesse Habui redder, sed genus omnium verborum vimque servavie’ The issue, whether in success or failure, rests with the judg- ment of my readers.

I cannot conclude without acknowledging my indebt- edness to Mr, Rizku’lah Azztn, Professor of Arabic to the Board of Examiners, for the care he has bestowed upon the Index to this Volume at a time when my duties gave me little leisure for so onerous a task. Its exhaustive fulness, and its accuracy, will be gratefully recognised by all who use it, and by none more than myself whose work so largely pro- fits by its utility, .

CaLcurta, ) H. 8. JARRETT. 17th May, 1894. J

ETHNOGRAPHY OF HINDUSTAN. AIT PREFATORY REMARKS.

It has long been the ambitions desire of my heart to pass in review, to some extent, the general conditions of this vast country, and to record the opinions professed by the’majority of the learned among the Hindus. I know not whether the love of my native land has been the attracting influence or exactness of historical research and genuine truthfulness of narrative, for Bandkiti,! Hafiz Abré and other ancient chroniclers have indulged in vain imaginings and recorded stories that have no fountlation in fact. Nor were the motives altogether these, but rather that when I had arisen from the close retirement of studious application and discovered somewhat of the ignorance and dissensions of men, I formed the design of establishing peace and promoting concord. My original desire now renewed its possession of me, but a multiplicity of occupations prevented its gratification until the turns of fate brought about the composition of this .striking record which has already branched out into such numerous details, Although my pen had occupied itself with the description of the Stbahs and had briefly recorded the annals of Hindustan, and now that the ambition of my heart had attained the time of its realisation, not content with the information I had already acquired, I had recourse to the knowledge of others and set myself to gather instruction from men of true learning. As I was unfamiliar with the science of terms in the Sanskrit language and a competent interpreter was not available, thg labour of repeated translations had to be undertaken, until by good fortune and my own stenrdfastness of purpose, my object was at length attained. It then became clear that the commonly received opinion that Hindus associate a plurality of gods with the One Supreme Being has not the full illumination of truth, for although with regard to some points and certain conclusions, there is room for controversy, yet the worship of one God and the profession of His Unity among, this ‘people appeared facts convincingly attested. It was indis-

• See Vol. II, pp, 33 and 86 for this ture is ihe unity of the Deity, in whom and the following name. the universe is comprehended; and the
• This is confirmed by Colebrooke. seeming polytheism which it exhibits, The real doctrine of the Indian Scrip- offers the elements and the stars and

1

2 PREFATORY REMARKS.

pensable in me, therefore, to bring into open evidence the system of philosophy, the degrees of self-discipline, aud the gradations of rite and usage of this race in order that hostility towards them might abate, and the temporal: sword be stayed awhile from the shedding of blood, that dissensions within and without be turned to peace and .the thornbrake of strife and enmity bloom into a garden of concord. Assemblies for the discussion of arguments might then be formed and gatherings of science suitably convened.

Notwithstanding that at all periods of time, excellent resolutions and well-intentioned designs are to be witnessed and the extent of the world is never lacking in prudent men, why does misunderstanding arise and what are the causes of contention ?

The First cause is the diversity of tongues and the misapprehension of mutual purposes, and thus the alloy of ill-will is introduced and’ the dust of discord arises. °

Secondly, the distance that separates the learned of Hindustan from scientific men of other nationalities who thus are unable to meet, and if chance should bring them together, the need of an interpreter would preclude any practical result. An accomplished lingnist capable of master- ing the intricacies of science and the abstruse speculations of philosophy among various nations and competent to give them luminous and efficient expression, is very rare. Even at the present time, when through His Majesty’s patronage of learning and his appreciation of merit, the erudite of all countries are assembled, and apply themselves with united effort in the pursuit of truth, so proficient a person is not to be found. Such as thirst after the sweet-waters of wisdom and who leaving their native land undertake the wanderings of travel and with diligent assiduity employ their energies in the acquisition of various languages, are indeed uncom- mon. It needs a secker such as Anushirwin, who amidst the pomp of empire should yet search for the jewel of wisdom, anda minister like Buazurjmihr, void of envy, as his counsellor, and both king and minister combined, to discover a coadjutor so unique and one so upright and intelli- gent as the physician Barzawaih, and then to send him with abundant

planets as gods. -The three principal text which I have yet seen, thongh sach manifestations of the divinity, with other are sometimes hinted at by cgmmenta- personified attributes and energies, and tors.” H.H. Wilson in commesting on tmvat of the other gods of Hindu mytho- thig passnge admits that the worship of logy, sre indicated in the Veda. But the the Vedas is for the mé@st part domestic, worship of deified heroes is no part of addressed to unreal presences and not to the system: nor are the incarnations of visiblo types, and not idolatry. V,ishnu.

deities suggested in any portion of the P. Pref. ii. -

PREFATORY REMARKS. 3

means disguised as a merchant to Hindustan’ in order that with this-capi: tal stock-in-trade he might obtain the interest’of acquired wisdom; and again this sagacious personage, making no distinction between the absence ov presence of his employers, must be diligent in his inquiries and succeed in the accomplishment of his desire through the frankness of his demea- nour and his largesse of gold. Or the occasion would demand an inde- fatigable and lofty intellect like that of Tumtum the Indian, who to receive the instruction of the divine philosopher Plato, passed from Hindustan ‘into Greece and freighting his caravans with the requisites of travel, set himself to face the dangers of seas and deserts, aud with the medicinal simples of wisdom perfected his spiritual health and the harmonious balance of his soul. Or a powerful mind and vigorous body such as Abu Maashar of Balkh, enamoured of wisdom, who holding exile and his native country and toil and ease undissociated, travelled into India from Khorasin and garnered a store of knowledge at Benares and carried’ it as a gift of price to the learned of his own land.

Thirdly, the absorption of mankind in the delights of corporeal gratifi cation, for men regard the absence of beauty in an object as placing it be: yond the pale of existence and therefore not to be thought of as worth ‘acquisition or productive of enjoyment. Their fastidiousness is averse from listening to accounts of foreign peoples even by way of apologue. And for- asmuch as their moral obliquity refuses to lend an ear and the glitter of this deceptive world lets fall a veil of ignorance before their eyes, what must be their, state and how may grace allaiitne for them the lamp of guidance. P oa

Fourthly, indolence. Men account what is ready to hand as more precious than the chance of future possession and prefer ease to exertion. They will not undertake the trouble of profound investigation, and content ~vith a superficial view, will not move.a span’s length to acquire a deeper insight. He alone is, the truc promoter of wisdom who, setting before his resolve the investigation of the concealed beauties of meaning, under the ‘guidance of assiduous rescarch an@ undaunted desire, plants his foot in the dread wilds of research, and reaches the goal of liis ambition undismayed by countless labours, sustaining the burden of the road by the force of capacity on the shoulders of his ever resolute will.

. -Fifthly the blowing of the chill blast of inflexible custom and the low flicker’ of the lamp of wisdom. From immemorial time the exercise of inquiry has been restricted, and questioning and investigation have been regarded as precursors of infidelity. Whatever has been received from fa- ther, director, kindred, friend o neighbour, is considered as a deposit under Divine sanction and a malcontent is reproached with impiety or irreligion.

4 PREFATORY REMARKS.

Although the few among the intelligent of their generation admit the imbecility of this procedure in others, yet will they uot stir one step ina practical direction themselves.

Siathly, the uprising of the whirlwind of animosity and the storms of persecution have stayed the few earnest inquirers from uniting to discuss their individual tenets and from meeting in friendly assemblies in a spirit of sympathy, and from distinguishing? commonalty of bond from vital estrangement, under the guidance of impartiality, in order that error may be severed from truth and the why and the wherefore weighed in the - scales of sound judgment. Even just monarchs, unconscious of their obligations, have herein neglected them. Arrogance and self-interest have intervened and occasions of intercourse have been marred by per- plexities. Some have taken refuge in silence; others have found evasion in obscurity of language, while others again have extricated themselves by time-serving utterances. If temporal rulers had interested themselves in this Matter and assuaged the apprehensions of men, assuredly many enlightened persons would hate delivered their real sentiments with calm- ness of mind and freedom of expression, Throngh the apathy of princes, each sect is bigoted to its own creed and dissensions have waxed high. Each one regarding his own persuasion as alone true, has set himself to the porsecution of other worshippers of God, and the shedding of blood and the ruining of reputation have become symbols of religious orthodoxy. Were the eyes of the mind possessed of true vision, each individual would withdraw from this indiscriminating turmoil and attend rather to his own solicitudes than interfere in the concerns of others. Amidst such unseemly discord, main purposes are set aside and arguments disregarded. If the doctrine of an enemy be in itself good, why should hands be stained in the blood of its professors P and even were it otherwise, the sufferer from the malady of folly deserves commiseration, not hostility and the shedding of his blood.

Seventhly, the prosperity of wretches without principle who deceit- fully win acceptance by affected virtue and rectitude. Such as these do much harm and truths are obscured through unrecognition. »

Cease, Abul Fazal, cease! The manifestations of divine wrath are illi- mitable and infinite are the marvels of their record. Loose not thy hand from the cord of peace seized by thy good intention. Follow ont thy

• I select a variant relegated to the this alteration the difficalty is cleared notes, in place of that of the text, and and its simplicity recommenda the gorres- amend the doubtful reading that follows tion.

by omitting the “* before pot. With .

PREFATORY RFMARKS. ; 5

long projected design. Though some of thy hearers will attain to wisdom and meet in rojoicing union, yet many will fall into sorrows and reap bewilderment. Thanks be to God that thou are not a hostage to the lament of ignorance nor the extoller of those that are in bonds.

THE BOUNDARIES OF HINDUSTAN A BRIEF DESCRIPTION THEREOF.

Hindustan is described as enclosed on the east, west and sonth by the ocean, but Ceylon, Achin, the Moluccas, Malacca and a considerable number of islands are accounted within its extent. To the north is a lofty range of mountains, part of which stretches along the uttermost limits of Hindustan, and its other extremity passes into Turkestan and Persia. An intermediate region lies between this and the vast frontiers! of China, inhabited by various races, such as Kashmir, Great and Little - Tibet, _Kishtawdr and others. This quarter may therefore be likened to another ocean. Withal its magnitude of extent and the mightiness of its empire it is unequalled in its climate, its rapid succession of harvests and the equable temperament of its people. Notwithstanding its vast size, it is cultivated throughout. You cannot accomplish a stage nor indeed travel a kos without meeting with populous towns and flourishing villages, ner without being gladdened by the sight of sweet-waters, delightful verdure and enchanting downs. In the autumn and throughout the depth of winter the plains are green and the trees in foliage. During the rainy season which extends from the close of the sun’s stay in Gemini to his entry into the sign of Virgo*, the elasticity of the atmosphere is enough to transport the most dispirited and lend the vigour of youth to old age. ‘Shall J praise the refulgence of its skies or the marvellous fertility of its soil ? : Shad I describe the constancy of its inhabitants or record their

1 Lit Chin and’ Machin, feigned or be- dominions. D’Herbelot thinks them . lieved by Orientals to be the descendants | derivatives or diminuttves of ‘Gog and of Japhet and applied by metonymy to Magog. -

express the full extent of the Chinese & Middle of June to end of August.

8 THE BOUNDARIES OF HINDUSTAN.

benevolence of mind? Shall I portray the beauty that charms the heart or sing of purity unstained? Shall I tell of heroic valour or weave’ romances of their vivacity of intellect and their lore? The inhabitants of this land are religious, affectionate, hospitable, genial and frank. They are fond of scientific pursuits, inclined to austerity of life, seekers after justice, contented, industrious, capable in affairs, Joyal, truthful and constant. The true worth of this people shines most in the day of adversity and its soldiers know not retreat from the field. When the day is doubtful, they dismount from their steeds and resolutely put their lives to hazard, accoun- ting the dishonoar of flight more terrible than death, while some even disable their. horses before entering the fight.

They are capable of mastering the difficulties of any subject in a short space of time and surpass their instructors, and to win the Divine favour they will spend body and soul and joyfully devote their lives thereunjo. They one and all believe in the unity of God, and as to the reverence they pay to images of stone and wood and the like, which simpletons regard as idolatry, it is not so. The writer of these pages has exhaustively discussed the subject with many enlightened and upright men, and it became evident that these images of some chosen souls nearest in approach to the throne of God, are fashioned as aids to fix the mind and keep the thoughts from wandering, while the worship of God alone is required as indispensable. In all their ceremonial observances and usage they ever implore the favour of the world-illumining sun and regard the pure essence of the Supreme Being as transcending the idea of power in operation.

Brahma, of whom mention was formerly made,! they hold to be the Creator; Vishnu, the Nourisher and Preserver; and Rudra, called also Mahadeva, the Destroyer. Some maintain that God who is without equal, manifested himself under these three divine forms, without thereby sully- ing the garment of His inviolate sanctity, as the Nazarenes hold of the Messiah. Others assert that these were human creatures exalted to these dignities through perfectness of worship, probity of thought and right- eousness of deed. The godliness and self-discipline of this people is such as is rarely to be found in other lands.

They hold that the world had a beginning, and some are of opinion that it will have an end, as will be mentioned hereafter. Ss Se

An astonishing circumstance is this, that if an alien wishes to enter the Brahman caste, they would not accept him and were One of these to adopt another religion and subsequently desire to revert to his own, he

2 Vol, 2, p. 16 .

THE BOUNDARIES OF HINDUSTAN, 9

would not be suffered so to do save in case of his apostasy under com- pulsion. They have no slaves. When they go forth to battle or during an attack by an enemy, they collect all their women in one building, and surround it with wood and straw and oil, and place on guard some trusty relentless men, who set fire to it when those engaged in fight despair of life, and these chaste women vigilant of their honour are consumed to death with unflinching courage.

In times of distress, moreover, should any one, thongh unconnected by ties of intimacy, implore their protection, they are prompt to aid and grudge neither property, life nor reputation in his cause.

It was also the custom in former times for each warrior in battle to challenge a foe and to encoynter none other than him.

The soil is for the most part arable and of such productive power that and is sown each year and in many places three harvests and molve-month and the vine bears fruit ix, its first

silver, copper, lead and iron abound.

proclaim its luxuriance. Its perfume The variety of its fruits and flowediment are choice and in profuss

and in parts

elephants cannot be sufficiently praised, erie country the horses resemble Arabs in breed and le are uncommonly fine. But for its lack of cooled water, its excessive heats, the scarcity of grapes, melons and carpets, and of camels it was open to the cavils of the experienced. His Majesty has remedied these deficiencies. Saltpetre

is now extensively used for its cooling properties, and high and low ap-

preciate the benefit of snow and ice brought down from the northern

mguntains. There is a slender fragrant root called khas,! of which, under His Majesty’s instructions, the fashion of constructing trellised chambers has come into vogue, and upon this if water be sprinkled, another winter ’ arises amid the summer heats. Skilled hands from Turkestan and Persia

under His Majesty’s patronage, sowed melons and planted vines, and

traders began to introduce in security the fruits of those countries, each in

its season and with attention to their quality, which occasioned an

abundance here when they were not procurable in their own. Through the

favour of His Majesty, all products of art, and the manufacture of woollen

and silken carpets and-of brocades were extensively encouraged, and by

means of the royal countenance so fine a breed of camels has been produced

as to be equal to the dromedaries of Irak.

• The odoriferous grass Andropogon the refreshing screens mentioned are Huricatum from the roots of which made.

2

10 GOSMOGONY.

A simmary view of India having been ‘now given, I shall proceed with more particularity, still proferring but little out of ‘much and recording éne among a thousand details.

THE Cosniocony.

More than eighteen opinions on this point have been ‘professed and: extraordinary narratives put forward, and each describes a different . genesis., It will be sufficient to mention three of them. The first’ia that: God who has no equal, taking upon himself the form of man appeared under the special manifestation called Brahma already alluded to, and by his mere volition produced four sons, Sanak, Sanandan, Sandtan, and:

Sanatkumar. Hach of these was commanded to engage in acts of creation, but lost in rapture of contemplation in the divine essence the to comply. In anger, the Supreme being form forth from his own forehead under anothe deva. His sublime immensity ‘unfitied hi

we unother design and camp, semblance and name as Mahd- for creative action. Ten! other

fested himself under the form of a woman whom they call Mahd-Lachhmt.

Three qualities are incorporated with her, Satva,.Raja and Tama.

2 A variant bas, “ two.’—The text has incorrectly Satrika, for which error Abul Fazl is responsible. The Viehna Pardna says that he divided his male being into eleven persons, Next he created himself the Manu Swayambhuya and the female portion of himself he constituted Sata-radpé whom the Manno took to wife. There are also other com- plications of birth and intercourse which may be pursued by the curious in the Pur&na itself, p. 51 et seq.

2 Hari, the lord of al], called also Ja- nérddana (from Jana, (ayq),“‘men” and Arddana ( tq), ‘worship’—‘the ob- ject of adoration to mankind’). He is the one only God, taking the designation of Brahma, Vishnu and Siva, according as he creates, preserves or destroys :-—

• This is the invariable doctrine of the

Purdous, Sev Wilson, Vishnu, P.p. 19. ‘The threo qualities dr attributes are shuted by the Hindu Triad; Brahma being the embodiment of Raja-guna, tho desire that created the world; Siva that of Zamax guna, the attribute of wrath; and Vishnu is Sutwa-guna or the property of mercy and goodness. The Padn® Purdna says that the sapreme spirit produced Brahma from hia right side, Vishna from his left, and Siva from his middle. eoose worship Brahma, pthers Vishna, othess Siva. Being a Vaishnava work, it gives the: supremacy to Vishnu, @nd declares that. “Vishnu one yet threefold, creates, preserves and destroys, therefore let the pious make no qjfference between the three.” See Dowson. Hindu Mythology.

THE COSMOGONY. » il

When she willed to create the world, through the instrumentality of Tama,

she manifested herself under another form which is called JMahdé-Kdli and

also Mahd-Mdyd. By her union with Satva, a further genesis proceeded

called Saraswati, and at her command each brought forth a male and

female and these two forms she herself inspired with life. Thus two

beings were born of each. From Mahé-Lachhmé sprong Brahma under

the form of a man, and Sri under the guise of a woman who is also called

Savitri. From Mahd-Kdli, were brought forth Mahd-deva and Trt the

latter of whom is also distinguished as Muhd-biddiya and Kdmdhenu,

and from Saraswati came forth Vishnu and Gauri. When these six

forms took birth, Mahd-Lachhmi proceeded to their conjugal union, and

joined Brahma with Tri, Guuri with Maha-deva, and Sri with Vishnu. The

conjunction of Brahma and Trt produced an egg which Maha-deva divided

“into two parts,! from one of which originated the devatas, daityas and

the like supernatural beings; from the other, men, animals, and the

‘vegetable aud mineral worlds. is

The Third opinion is accounted the ‘most authentic. In the work called, Stirya-Siddhdnta? composed some hundreds of thousands of years ago,’ it is circumstantially related that towards the end of the Satya-yug, flourished the great Demon Maya. That sage was lost in astonishment at the wonders of crention, avd confounded by his own ignorance, ap- plicd himself to a supplication of the sun to discover the mode in which creation was effected and passed some thousands of years in these entreaties and desires. After he had undergone surpassing trials, that be- stower of radiance on the heavens and the earth appeared to him under a

.? The: Brahmdnd or egg of Brahma is applied by Albirani to the wholo altfp on account of its supposed spherical shape and its division into upper and lower and he says that when the Lindas enumerate the heavens ( wld! ) they call them ig, their ontirety, Brehmdnd. Hoe also quotes a passage from the Ti- moous expressing a similar idea. The citation gives somewhat of the sonse though Yt adfects to give tne language of Plato. The passage will be found at p. 338, Vol, V, of Hermann’s Edit of the Dialogaes beginning ratrnv ody anv thoracw Kk. tT. A. and is quoted by Sachau. See Cap. XX, Albiruni, India.

o ‘

Tho egg of Brahma is mentioned in the ordinances of Mann and in the Stirya- Siddhanta, and occurs in all the Purfnaa. Aristophanes is supposed by Porphyry to allude to this myth in the Avos, 695. Kellgren reviews the whole subject in his essay ‘“ Mythus de Ovo Mundano.”

• Bentley (As. Rov. VIII, 196) im- putes the anthorship to Varaha Mihira and refuses it an older date than 7 or 800 years. The authorship of the remaining Siddhintas are likewise s- cribed to him by the same writer. His arguments on the modern date of the Strya-Siddhanta are very convincing.

12 COSMIC PHENOMENA.

beautiful form and asked him what he desired. He said, “ Draw back the veil from the marvels of the stars and the skies and from the mysteries of wisdom and illuminate the darkness of my understanding with tho light of knowledge.” It was answered : “Thy desire shall be granted. In a certain shrine unite in spirit with me and a celestial being shall appear and instruct you in wisdom.” the shrine appointed and near the close of the Salya-yug, the giver of his desire! appeared. The sage entered into much questioning regarding the mysteries of heaven and earth and received replies that satisfied him. The questions and answers were compiled in one volume under’the name of the Surya Siddhdnta, and to this day the astronomy, of entire Hindustin is based upon it. In this work the origin of creation is said to be from the Sun, which is regarded as a divine manifestation. The Almighty Creator of the world formed a hollow sphere of gold com- posed of two parts which he rendered luminous with somewhat of His own glory arftl it was called the Sun. The Sun produced the signs of the Zodiaé and from the same source sprung the four Vedas, and afterwards the moon, the ethereal fluid, air, fire, water and earth, in this order. From the ether he produced Jupiter; from the air, Saturn; from fire, Mars; from water, Venus; and from the earth, Mercury. Through the ten portals of the human frame-work he brought various matter into being. The ten portals are thus numbered: the two cyes, the two ears, the nose, the mouth, the navel, the anterior and posterior foramina, and the tenth, the crown of the head, which last is closed. It opens, however, at the time of death in some of those who are about to quit life and body, and this is considered singularly auspicious. His Majesty has increased the number

The seeker was comforted. He waited in expectation at

of portals by the two breasts, and counts the number as twelve. After a long course the human race became of four kinds as shall be presently related.

ON THE INFERIOR AND SUPERIOR COSMIC PHENOMENA.

The Hindu philosophers maintain that the elements have a spherical form? and they have added Ether? to the number. They hold it to pervade

2 This was the man born of the San, aiet) and hence allotted tRe upperniost

and partaking of his nutare deputed to

teach Maya in place of the Sun-god, who ,

excused himself on the plea of want of time. The excuse has a respectable antiquity.

4 The authorities for this are Arya- .

bhata, Vasistha and Lita. Albirdni, 26.

• Called so by the Greeks from its being in perpetual flow, “(44d Tod beiv

place, and the idea of perpetual duration.

Alonep &s érépov tivds dvtos Tou mpdrov oépatos mapa yi nat wip, kaledépa Kul B5wp, at0épa mposwrvduacay roy dwurdrw rimov, amd Tod Ociv aiet, roy didiov xpdvou Oduevur thy éxwvuulay a®rG. ?Avatayépas be xaraxéxpn Tat TH dvdpats todty ob KaAGS bvopdter yap aidépa avr) mupés.

Aristot. De Colp. Cap, III.

COSMIC PHENOMENA. 13

all things and that no space is void of it. They do not incline to the no- tion of a celestial substance (wf ) but adoy-t the account of the spheres on the system of the Almagest! of Ptolemy. The Zodiac is divided into

twelve signs, each of which is termed “‘rés.

They are as follows :—.,

1. Mésha.

2. Vrisha.

3. Mithuna.

4. Karkata.

5. -Sitha.

6. Kanyé3

7. Tula. ss

8. Vrischika.

9. Dhanu.

10. Makara.$

° 11. Kumbha. 12. Mina.

”

1. Aries.

2. Taurus.

3. Gemini.

4. Cancer.

5. Leo.

6. Virgo.

7. Libra.

8. Scorpio.

9. Sagittarius.

10. Capricornus. ll. Aquarius.

11. Pisces.

12. Ptolemy’s first book of the Almagest treats among other matters of the spheri- cal form and motion of the heavena, the spherica] form of the earth and its loca- tion in tho contre of the heavens and of the two circular celestial motions which all the stars have in common. He has been held by some writers to maintain that the celestial spheres are solid, but others consider this a mistaken assump- tion from a convenient phraseology. The Ptolemaic planetary system is learnedly described in Montucla’s Hist. Des Ma- thematiques. I, pp. 294 et seq. who, how- evor, does not treat of the books of the Almagest seriatim and chiefly confines himself to the 8th. The rest may be found in W. Smith, Art. Ptol.

% Abul Fazl duplicates the n; as his orthography of Hindu names and terms is untrustforthy, I shall for the fature give the’letters their proper value with- out attention to hig incorrect translitera- tio

• Capricornus was represented on an-

ient monuments with the fore part of a

goat and the hind part of a fish. Tho Hinda Afukara, according to the Sanskrit verses of Sripeti, qaoted by Sir W. Jones, (I, 336) is a sea-monster with the face of an antelope. The question at once presents itself as to the relative antiquity of the Greek and Indian Zodiacal signs, Montocla in his III Book, Part II, Vol. I, begins by maintaining that the Indians borrowed from the Greeks or rather from the Egyptians, and concludes with the belief that the Indians obtained their knowledge from the Persians, and they in turn from the Chaldeans. His argu- ments are based on the observations of M. Legentil of the French Academy who travelled in India to acquaint him- self with its astronomy and chronology. The names of the Zodiacal signs are given in Tamil and accord with those of the text, save the first which is given as “Meoham” and translated as Je chien Maron.” He concludes from the method of one of their calculations of a solar eclipse that it does not date farther back than 1200 years. Anquotil

14 COSMIC PHENOMENA.

The Persian, Egyptian and Greek sages affirm the existence of a colour- ness body which is transparent and is not subject to growth, increase, decrease, disruption, conjunction nor dissolution, neither does it admit of tenuity nor density nor generation nor decay. It is not compounded of bodies variously organised, neither is it affected by heat, cold, moisture, nor dryness, nor can lightness or gravity be predicated of it. It possesses life and continuity of existence, and is not subject to desire or anger. Jt is called “asman.”! The general opinion is that the Universe (76 adv) includes nine spheres, but some think eight, others, eleven, others, seven, and it is even affirmed that there is but a single Kosmos.

The Hindu philosophers acknowledge the existence of the planets and fixed stars, but assert that their substance is of water* congealed like hail,

goes further in support of the modern date of Hindu learning and declares their kal yug was communicated to themdy the Arabs of the 9th and 10th centuries ; his arguments are set forth by the French astronomer. Sir W. Jones supports the opinion that both Greeks and Hindus received the Zodiac from an older nation from whom both had a common descent, and the view of Montucla which he men- tioned to his pandits was naturally re- garded by them “as.a notion bordering on phrensy.” The two schools of opinion are well matched both in learning and a mutual contempt for each other. It may be worth uoticing that the original Greek Zodiac had bat 31 signs, the Scorpion eccupying the place of two. Its claws called the xnAra became afterwards known as Libra. I refer the reader to Montnacla I, p. 79, for the explanation of this division,

• These are the attributes of the Pra- dh&na, (chief principle or primary ernde matter) ascribed to it by the Sankhya philosophy. It is independent and co- ordinate with primary spirit. See Vishna P. p. 9 e¢ seq. The greater part of this passage is almost iden- tical with the description of the word

cus the Arabic equivalent of yiew!,

in the [stiléhait w’l Fanin, pp. 1134-5, qnoted from the Hidayat n’] Hikntat (Institatis pbilosophis recta) of Mai- budi. I have not been able to trace the passage in the latter work verba- tim, but in scattered references only. The notion is taken from Aristotle. °

‘Ewel 8’ cis 7d abrd héperat …, cupBaiver aparov pty, pire Koupdéryr’ Exew gird unde- pilav, phte Bdpos. ‘Opes 8 ebdroyor, viro- AoRety wept abrod, Kat Bre aydvynrdy Kat qd2Gaprov, Kai dvavges, wal dvaddoiwraror … «7.a. De Colo. Cap. III.

3 Albirdni mentions this in his LV Chap. “The Hindus believe regarding the bodies of all the stars that they kave a globnlar shape, a watery essence, and that they do not shine, whilst the sun alone is of fiery essence, self-shining and per accidens illuminates other stars when they stand opposite to him. They reckon according to eyesight agrong the stars algo, such Inmineus bodies as in reality are not stars, but the lights into which those men have been metamorphosed who have received etern®l reward from God. The Vishuu-Dharma aays : “The stars are watery and jhe rays of the sun illuminate them in the night. Those x; by their pious deeds have obtained place on the height, sit there on the

°

THE INSTITUTION OF THE GHARYAL. 15

and that they receive their light from the sun. Others maintain that it is from the moon, and that these Inminous bodies dominate the aspects of fortune. They also hold the connection of a celestial spirit with each. Some suppose the stars to be human beings, who by suppressing the emotions of anger and desire, and by mortification and moral beauty of life, have reached this exalted eminence.

.

NAMES OF THE PLANETS AND OF THE DAYS OF THE WEEK.

Sanichar! is Saturn (Saturday). Brihaspati is Jupiter (Thursday). Mangal is Mars (Tuesday). Aditya, the Sun (Sunday). The Hindus have more than a thousand names for the sun. His Majesty knows by heart the whole of these and uses them in his prayers, but the name Siéraj is the one in common use among all classes. S’ukra is Venus (Friday). Budh is Mercury (Wednesday). Soma is the Moon (Monday).

Bach of these planets has several names, and each day of the week has a special connection with and is named after its planet, with the ad- dition of the word ‘war.’ Thus, Sunday which begins the week is called Aditya-wdr ; Monday, Soma-wér ; Tuesday, Mangal-wdr ; Wednesday, Budh- war; Thursday, Brihaspati-wér ; Friday, S’ukra-wdr ; Saturday, Sanichar- war.

Tue InsTITUTION OF THE Gharydl.

This is around gong of mixed metal,? shaped like a griddle but thicker, made of different sizes; and suspended by a cord. It may be not sounded except by royal command, and accompanies the royal equipage.

The Hindu philosophers divide the day and night into four parts, each of which they call pahr. - Throughout the greater part of the country, the

thrones, and when shining, they are reckoned among the stars!” Trans. II, 64,

‘I have retained the exact order of this passage while correcting the ortho- graphy of thg names as given by Abul Fazl The 19th Chap. of Albirtni’s

Sachau’s

India begins with the same snbject and the similarity of treatment and expression, tough not of the order, is so striking that, as I have before had occasio

there is little indebtedness to s handling of any ig that of a phi-

losopher who is master of it; Abul Fazl is purely the compiler and the scribe. I refer the reader to Hamboldt’s Cosmos, Vol. IV, p.°410, and onwards, text and notes, for the antiquity and diffusion of the planetary, hours and planetary days of the week.

? Lit. Haft-josh, a metal compounded of iron, antimony, lead, gold, tin, copper and silver. The ordinary bell-metal is an alloy of 80 parts of copper and 20 of tin, though some English bells have been found to consist of copper, tin, zinc and lead.

———

16 THE INSTITUTION OF THE GITARYAL.

pahr never exceeds nine gharis’ nor is less than six.) The ghar? is the sixtieth part of a nychthemcron, and is divided into sixty parts, each of which is called a pal which is again subdivided into sixty bipal.

Tn order to ascertain and indicate the time, a vessel of copper or other metal is made of a hundred ftdnks* weight. In Persian itis called pingdn, as an ancient sage sings,

Why reck’st thou of a world whose span A clepsydra doth mete to man ?* ¢

It is in the shape of a bowl narrower at the lower part, twelve fingers in height and breadth. A perforation is made below to admit of a golden tube being passed through of the weight of one Afushd, and in length the breadth of five fingers. It is placed in a basin of pure water in a place undisturbed by the wind. When the bowl is full of water, one ghari is elapsed,* and in order that this should be known to far and near, the gong is strudk once, and for the second time, twice, and so on. When a pahr has elapsed, the number of gharts expired therein is first sounded and then more deliberately from one to four (according to the pakr), thus announc- ing the pahr struck. Thus when it is two pahr, (twelve o’clock), the gong is struck twenty-six times, taking the pakr at eight gharis. The Em- peror Baber in his Memoirs writes: “When at the end of a pahr a certain number of gharis had elapsed, this number was sounded while the pahr just expired was unknown. I ordered that the number of the pahr

1 See p. 16, Vol. IT, n. 4.

2 A weight of 4 Mdskas and sometimes alittle more. See Vol. 1, 16, n.

• These lines are from the Hadtkah of Hakim Sandi, p 298, of the lithographed edition. The clepsydra was known in Greece in the time of Aristophanes and was used for regulating the time allowed for speeches of accused persons before courts of justice. But in this, the water was allowed to escape through the orifice of the vessel. Seo Lewis’ Ast. of the An- cients, p. 182.

• It ig thus described in the Surya Siddhanta, Chap. XII. “The copper vessel (in the shape of the lower half of a water jar) which has a small hole in its bottom and placed upon clean water in a basiu, sinks exactly sixty times in a ny-

chthemeron, is called the Kapila Yantra. In the Vishnu Pordna p. 631, it is said to be ‘a vessel made of 12} Palas of copper, in the bottom of which therg is to be a hole made with a tube of gold, of the weight of 4 Mdshas and 4 inches long.” A commentary is more explicit. “A vessel made of 124 Palas of copper, and holding a Prastha, (a Magadha measure) of water, broad at top and hav- ing at bottom a tube of gold of 4 Aldshas weight, 4 fingers long, is placed in water, and the time in which the vessel is filled by the hole in the bottom is& Nddike.” It is therefore clear that there nfust be a pipe of the m

the length given, and not a See a paper on Res. Y. 87.

THE ORDER OF THE SPHERES. VW

should be repeated after a brief interval.” The Hindo philosophers account 360 breathings of 2 man in good health as a ghari of time, and each is formed of six inspirations and respirations, of which 21,600 are drawn in the course of a nychthemeron.

THE ORDER OF THE SPHERES.

The first is the Earth, over which is Water, but not encompassing it entirely. Above this is Fire, towards its northern extremity shaped like a myrobalan. Above this again is the Air, but its concave surface is not spherical. The Airisof nine kinds. Bhdvéyu, is the atmosphere extending up to the height of forty-seven kos from the globe of the earth. It is volatile in every direction and is the region wherein rain, thunder and lightning take ‘their yrigin. Avaha is the air from the last-mentioned body to the moon. Pravaha, from the second to Mercury. Udvaha from the third to Venus. Samvaha, from the fourth to the Sun. Suvaha, from the fifth to Mars. Parivaha, from the sixth to Jupiter. Pardvaha, from the seventh to Saturn. Pravahdnila, from tlie eight to the fixed stars. Day and night are formed by the revolution of this wind, with a movement from east to west, the other seven winds reversing this order of motion! But

_, their more authoritative opinion is that those seven form the Pravahdnila, and are named after the seven planets and all revolve from east to west.® Their knowledge does not extend beyond the fixed stars. Ether transcends

. all other spheres and is unfathomable.

The mean motions of the planets which they call Madhyama differ from the Greek reckoning in the seconds and thirds. Thus, in a nychthemeron

1 Tam uncertain of this meaning. The elements in successive order are suppos- ed to acquire the property of causality one to the other. The order in allthe Puranas but one is the same according to Wilson (Vish. P.), and agrees with the text Tho seven winds occur in this order in’ the Siddhanta Siromani which adds; ‘The atmosphere extends to the height of 12 yojanas from the earth. Within tiffs ligit are the clouds, light-

ning, £8. The saha wind which is

ves constantly form motipn. vse includes it therefore raha wind ig

carried round with the stars and planets in a constant revolution.” Wilkinson’s Translation, p. 127.

3 Compare with this the direction of the planes of the winds and their names according to the Moslem theory, in Al- birtini’s Chronology of Anc. Nations. Sachan, p. 341. In Vol. I of his India, (p. 280 Sach.) Brahmagupta says “ The wind makes all the fixed stars and the pla- nets revolve towards the W. in one and the game revolution, but the planets *move also in a slow pace to the E. like a dust atom moving ona potter’s wheel in a di- rection opposite to that in which the wheel is revolving.” Albirdini considers their speaking of the wind as a motor is

18 THE ORDER OF THE SPHERES.

extending from midnight to midnight, the Surya-Siddhaénta gives the following calculations,

Degrees. | Minutes. | Seconds. | Thirds.

Moon… wes ay 13 10 34 53 Mereury

Venus ‘ ites eee 0 59 8 10 Sun

Mars… soe sas 0 $1 26 28 Jupiter … re aes 0 4 59 9 Saturn … is aie 0 2 0) 23

According to the Greeks. Degrees. | Minutes. | Seconds. } Thirds.

Moon… aes Mis 35 2 Mercury

Venus ee is 19 San

Mars… wie a5 27 40 Jupiter fee oe ove 16 Saturn … sak ass 35

The motion of the Planets is considered of their essence and is of equal velocity in all. When calculated in kos their rate of motion is said to be 11,858 yojana! and 3 kos in the space of a nychthemeron, and their direc- tion is from west to east. The difference in their periods arises from the greater or less extent of their orbits, the superior being greater than those lower in position. °

intended on)y to facilitate the idea to the vulgar comprehension, but when they come to speak of the fast-mover (God) they at once lay aside comparison with the wind whose essence is not moving but is a body acted upon by external in- fluence. According to the Sirya-Sid- dhanta the rapid movement of the planets is caused by the wind Pravaha.

1 A yojana is four kos. Albirdni in his India, Chap. XV, (Sach. I. 167) makes 1 kros’a=1 mile or 4,000 yards, and 1 yojana=8 miles or kreh or 32,000 yards. Some, he adds, think the kros’a = 4 farsakh,

and so make the farsakh of the Hindus 16,000 yards, but this is not so, as this latter (farsakh) is=4 yojana, Sachau has made a slight oversight in this last passage by translating 1 kros’a= 4 yojana. But this cannot be as he already saya above that 1 yojana=8 kros’a. The Far. sakh is reckoned by Albjrin® in his V Chap. as 8 miles, a yojan€ which being reckoned af ards,

THE ORDER OF THE SPHERES. 19

The progression of the fixed stars they consider to be somewhat simi- lar to that of the planets, but differing from the Greeks, they assert that with regard to the Lunar stations, there is a motion of 54 seconds? in one year, or one degree in 66 years and 8 months. They® compute that the as- terisms advance 278 degrees from the beginning of Aries, or according to an- other calculation, having advanced 24 degrees, they have a retrograde motion till they reach the 28th degree of Pisces whence they return to Aries, and the same movement re-commences. The Ursa Major which is called in Sanskrit Sapta-rishi* (the seven Sages) has a precession in one year of 1? seconds, 47 thirds from west to east, or one degree in 200 years and 6

months, and accomplishes its revolution.

One sect considers the operation

of these forces to depend solely on the power of the Almighty. et

i “Tho motion of 51 seconds is a mo- tion in longitude common to all the stars, but the retrogade motion is the variation of right ascension.” —Mr. Reuben Barrow, the astronomer, who assisted Gladwin in the part of his work thus notes on this passage. His succeeding remarks are devoted to the correction of a supposed error of Abal Fazl’s, but entiroly due to Gladwin’s misapprehension of his MS.

& Thus Albirdni in his Chronol, p. 352. . “Because now the fixed stars which give the forms and names to the Lanar Stations move on in one and the same slow motion, you must add one day to the days of their rising and setting in evéry 66 Solar years, gince in such a period they move one degree.”

8 In the Sdrya-Siddhanta, the preces- sion of the equinoxes is thus described : “ The circle of Astorisms librates 600 times in a great Yuga (that is, all the Aaterisms at first move westward 27°. Then returning from that limit they reach their former places. Then from those plin@es ghey move eastward the same nffmber of degrees, and returning thence come again to their own places. Thus they complete one libration or revo- Tution as itis called). Bapu Deva, Bur- gess has a long note on this mode of statement in his transtation, p. 100.

“ Si Yon suit une des planétes superie- ares, Mars, Jupiter, ou Satarne, durant le cours d ’une mame année, on oh- serv8 des mouvemens fort bisarres. Lo- rsqu’elle commence a se dégager des rayons du soleil, sa vitesse qui est alors médiocre, va en diminuant de jour 4 au- tre jusqn’ & un certain point on elle sem- ble s’arréter. Aprés quelques jours elle commence a rétrograder, d’abord lente- ment, puis en accélérant son mouvement jasqa’aux environs de |’opposition : 1 sa vitesse recommence a diminner, et quel- que temps apres elle s’arréte en appar- ence une seconde fois: elle reprend enfin son mouvement suivant l’ordre des signes, allant d’ abord fort lentement, et en- suite plus vite, jusqu’d ce que!l’approche du soleil qui l’atteint, la fasse disparottre @nos yeux. Mars épronve ces apparen- ces deux fois dans une de ses revolutions. Jupiter douze, et Saturne trente, Mon- tulen. Hist. des’ Math. I. 300.

4 Mr. Reuben Burrow notes on Gladwin, that this cannot be a constellation bnt ao particular star: and though it may have the velocity the author assigns to it at one time, at others its motion mnst be difforent. The star, however being known, its situation is doterminable from its velocity.

20 THE ORDER OF THE SPHERES.

The ancient Greeks, including Aristotle, were ignorant of the motion of the fixed stars and Hipparchus observed a few! with a motion from east to west in the Zodiac, but he was unable to calculate their dimen- Ptolemy determined the motion of the stars in longitude to be one degree in a hundred solar years. Ibn Aalam and others reckoned sixty. The observations of Nasir’uddin Tisi agree with this last, but Muhyi’ddin Maghrabi? and a number of experts at the same observatory discovered that Aldebaran, the Heart of Scorpio (a Scorpii), and others, advanced a degree in 66° years. In the Gurgani Tables (of Ulugh Beg) this is made to occur in 70 Yazdajirdi years, each of which is 365 years without a fraction.

sions,

CIRCUMFERENCES OF THE SPHERES.5

The Planets. e

Moon … wes ass 7 Mercury obs aes aes Venas… ose See ete Sun … ses? tes ter, Mars … ay sis oa Jupiter oes ae

Saturn . sine +e oes Fixed Stars a

Ether, beyond which the gun’s rays do nob traverse ove ass ee

1 M. Montulca observes that Hippar- chug, according to Ptolemy, suspected that only the stars in the Zodiac or in its vicinity had been disturbed in posi- tion asif, being the nearest in some mea- sure to the great ronte of the planets, they had been more exposed to share in their motion. But he soon discovered that the movement was general around the poles of the Zodiac, and he trans- mitted alarge number of observations on the fixed stars for the use of his sac- cessors. ‘hey served to assure Ptolemy of the perfect immovability of the fixed stars with regard to each other and of the movement of the whole starry sphere around the poles of the Zodiac. Hist. des Math, 268, I.

2 Called al Maghrabi from his resi- dence in Spain and Africa. He was spared in the sack of Aleppo by Holéga

Yojanas. Kroh. 324,000 ee 1,043,207 8 . 2,664,636 2 and a fraction 4,331,500 a fraction 8,146,908 51,375,764 ] 127,668,255 2 less a fraction 259,¢90,012 ade 18,712,080,864,000,000 ove

and associated with Taési at Maragha in A. H. 658. He thus took part in form- ing the Ilkhdni Astronomical Tables. He had a wide reputation as 4 philosopher and mathematician. D‘Herb.

3 Ptolemy following the steps of Hipparchaus, established conclusively his theory of the movement of the fixed stars. In comparing the longitudes of several of these with those found by Hipparchns, he showed that they had advanced parallel to the KEcliptic by 2° 40’ since his day and as 265 years had since then elapsed, he concluded the movement to be one degree in g00 years. The more exact calculation of enodern days shows it to be onein 72. Hist. des. Math. I. 225. ¢

4 See Vol. II, p. 28.

5 These distances are given in Albi- réni’s LV Chap. jn two computations

LUNAR STATIONS. yal

The minutes of the diameters of each of the planets bear a proportion- ate ratio to the minutes of their circumference.!

3 Mustard seeds) | ( Barley corn. 8 Barley corns @ | Digit. 24 Digits © | Cubit (Dast). 4 Cubits 2 | Dand.

2000 Dand § | Kos. 4 Kos. | Yojana.

Lunar Stations.

Each of these is called Nakshatra, and they are 27 in number, severally divided into 13 degrees ayd 20 minutes.

FA z

g sg

Asterisms. % Asterisms. e ss

s 7

zi 4 Po

een eee em SE Ce | |

1. ASwini (a Arietis) ., «| 3115. Swati (a Bootis; Arcturns) oe] 1

2. Bharani (Musca)… of 3116. Viéakha (2 or x ‘dibra) ow | 4%

3. Kyittika (+ Tauri Pleindes) «| 6 117. Anuradha (5 Scorpionis) 4

4. Rohini (a Tauri Aldabaran) … | 5 | 18. Jyeshtha (a Scorpionis, ‘Antares) 3

5. MrigaSira (A Orionis) oo | 3119. Mula (» Scorpionis) … wee | UL

6. Ardraé(a Orionis) … * «| 1 | 20. Parvishadha (3 Sagittarii) oe | 4

7. Punarvasu (8 Geminorum) os] 4 | 21. Uttardshadba (7 Sagittarii) | 3

8. Pnshya (5 Cancri) … we | 8 | 22, Abhijit (a Lyri) a one

9. ASlesha (@ 1 and 2 Cancri) «| & | 23. Sravana (a Aquile) … {| 3

10. Maghé (@ Leonis Regulns) …| 5 | 24. Dhanishth& (a Delphini) oe] 4

11. Purvaé-phalguni (5 Leonis) ..{ 2 | 25. Satabhishé (a Aquarii) 35

12. Uttaré-phalgnni (6 Leonis) 2 | 26. Parvabhadrapada (a Pegasi) ves

13. Hastd (y or 3 Corvi) .. | 6 | 27, Uttarabhadrapadd (a Anudromede)

14. Chitra (a Virginis, Spica) oe | 1 | 28. Revati(¢ Pisciam) … saa

° Note. Ihave taken the stars from Bapu Deva’s translation of the Sdrya-SiddbAnta.

Altogether 221 stars. The moon never tarries in any one station more than 65} gharts or less than 543.

e with some varinnce between each other yojanas of the circumferences. Thua the and those of the text. They are also given minutes of the diameter of the moon are in 12th chapter of the Strya-Siddhainta to the minutes of her circumference, ¢. ¢., with sgme slight variation from the text. 21,600, as the number of the yojanas 1 This sentence is not in two MSS. of the diameter, 4. e., 480, are to the and as it stands, appears incomplete. yojanas of the*circnmference of her The remaining terms of the proportional whole sphere, and in the same way with are missing, and are probably the num- the Sun, as shewn by Albirdni, Chap. LV.

ber of yojanas of the diameters, to the

22 LUNAR STATIONS.

Three degrees and twenty minutes of the 21st Nakshatra to 48’ of the 22° Nakshatra have, for certain purposes, been separately designated Abhijit.

The Greeks reckoned 28 Lunar Stations and assigned 12 degrees, 51 minutes and 26 seconds to each. They are as follows*

No. of Names of the Lunar Stations. Stars. | Magnitudes.

1. Al Sharatén (8, ¥ Arietis)… se ose wo | 2 Srd.
2. Al Butain (¢, 3, r Arietis)… sea Ae ay 3 Sth. ‘8, Al Thurayya (Pleiades) ee ous aes eee 6 Sth. 4, Aldabarén (a Tauri) bee ee ses ee 1 Ist.
3. Al Hakaah (A, 9’ 6” Orionis) see a eee 3 nebular.
4. Al Hanaah (7, Geminoram) ose eae wae 2 | 8rd and 4th.
5. Al Dhiréa (a, 8 Geminorum } vee 2 2nd. 8 Al Nathrah (Preesepe fe) et dao Aselli y, 3) Caneri des 2 4th.
6. Al Tgrfah (the eye of Leo; two close together, one belonging to Leo, the other to the sturs outside the figure of Cancer) 2 4th. 10, Al Jabhah (§ 7, 7, @ pote) eo ses ves 4 loneof the 4th, 11, Al Zabrah (3, @ Leonis) . ae oes tee 2 2nd.
7. Al Sarfah (8 Leonis) oes _ Se5 1 ist.
8. Al Awwa (8, 7, 7, 3, € Virginis) oes ae | 5 3rd. 14, Al Simék (al Aazal)s (Spica) ase ee 1 1st. 15, Al Ghafrd (c, «, A, Virginia) tee See eee 3 4th.

1 ‘A complete revolution of the moon,’ are more-ensily and clearly visible with- says Sir W. Jones im his paper on the out any study or research than the other Indian Zodiack (As. Kes. II. 293) Stations, or because as I have found in ‘with respect to the stars, being made some books of Hermes, the vernal equi- in 27 daya, odd hours, minutes and nox coincides with the rising of the seconds, and perfect exactness being Pleiades, God knows best what they either not attained or required by the intended.”

Hindus, they fixed on the number 27 and 8 Ptolemy considered them one cloudy. inserted Abhijit for some astrological star and called them the nebule in the purpose in their nuptial ceremonies. It head of Orion. Albirdini. See also consists of 3 stars between the 21st and Humboldi’s Cosmos, Vol. III, pp. 120-22, 22nd stations.” According to Albirdni, Otte.

Abhijit is the Falling Eagle. An Nasr al % Also, called the Calf of the Lion, and Waki. Al Simék Alrémih is his otifer calf. Albi-

2 Abul Fazl gives only the Arabian | réni. names. I take the Greek equivalents 5 Said to be the best of the Lunar Sta- from Albirini’s Chronology, Sachan, p. tions because it stands behind @eo and 343. The first name should be As Shara- before Scorpio. The horoscopeseof all’ tin, not Sharatain as Abdl Fazl writes the prophets are said to be in this Sta- it. The Arabs commenced with this Sta- tion, “but this does not%eem to be true tion, but other nations with the Pleiades, except in the case of the Messiah, the

says Albirani, adding, “I do not know prophet who keeps off all mishaps,” Ibid. whether they do this because the Pleiades = [’ ‘

MAGNITUDES OF THE FIXED STARS. . 93

7 No. of

Names of the Lunar Stations Stars.| Magnitudes. 16. Al Zubiné (a, 8 Libre) … roy aes es 2 2nd. 17. Al Iklil (8, 5, Scorpii) … aes S30 oss 3 4th. 18, Al Kalb (a ‘Sco rpii) ose ves eos 1 2nd. 19. A} Shaulah (a, v Scorpii) oes eee 2 2nd. 20. Al Nadim (y, 3, ¢, 2, ¢, ¢, 7, € Sagittarii) ee 4 8rd. 21. Al Baldah, a blank circular space of the heavens! : a aesens 22, Saad Al Dh4bih (a, 8Capricorni) … we *. 2 8rd. 23. Saad-Bulaa (u, v, ¢ Aquarii) ase one ees 2 | 8rd and 4th. 24, (Saad) Al Suid (@, Aquarii) ie « |2 or 3{ 3rd and 5th. 25, (Saad) Al Akhbiyah (y, § 7, 7 Aquarii) ez ae 4 3rd. 26. Mukaddam (Alfargh al Awwal (a, 8 Pegasi) ase 2 2nd. 27. Muakkhar { Alfaragh Althéni) (7 Pegasi, and a Andromedie) 2 2nd. 28. Rashad (Batn Albut) (8 Andromedm) _ 3 8rd.

In all 66 or 67 stars. «+

In the following table will be found various particulars regarding the Planets.

[The form is given but the particulars are wanting in all the MSS. The entries were probably left to be made at a later time, and either for- gotten or the information was never obtained. The details were the diameters and dimensions of the planets and their distances from the earth’s centre in farsakhs and yojanas according to the Hindus, to Ptolemy and to modern astronomers, but as Albirtini observes, the Hindu astrono- mers themselves are not agreed in their computations. Pulisa reckons the diameter of the earth as 1,600 yojanas, and its circumference as 502634, whilst Brahmagupta reckons the former at 1,581 and the latter at 5,000 yojanas. The table of Yakub-b-Térik, will be found in Albirini’s India, Vol. II, p. 68.]

Macenitudes or THE Fixep Stars.

The Hindu philosophers reckon seven magnitudes as follows :-—

Magnitudes. 8 3 Yojanas.| Kos. | Dang. ;Cabit.| Digit. Q A} 8 a a Diameter of the 1st ase 7 80 | 90,239 2 700 oe ase ” » 2nd ose 6 15 | 75,199 2 | 1,250 vee sis ” » 8rd one 6 80 |} 66,175 2 | 1,580 aa one » %y¢@ 4th ow | 4 © | 48,127] 8 238 2 2 »@ 5, 5th oe] 8 0 | 36,095] 0 678 3 | 13 os » 6th de 2 0 | 24,063 3 | 1,219 1 1 ms » Zh se 1 oO } 12,0381 8 | 1,559 2 12 1 According to Albirdni a starless derivations of all these Arabic names are

district of heaven, at the side of the given by Albirini together with interest- Horse, belonging to® Sagittarius. The ing partionlars regarding each. I have

24, MAGNITUDES OF THE FIXED STARS.

The Greeks mention six. The first they call the greatest (Akbar) and the sixth, the least (Asghar), and each comprised three degrees, the great, the mean and the less, each more important in proportion to its degree! The intervals of the hexade were measured by‘sixths. Some supposed that a diameter of a star of the lst magnitude was six times the diameter of the smallest; but a manifest error occurred in calculating the volumes and distances intervening, by concluding that the volume of a mean star of the lst magnitude must therefore be six times larger than the volume of a star of the 6th magnitude. But Euclid has demonstrated in the last proposition of the 12th Book of the Elements, that circles are to one another as the squares on their diameters, that is, if the ratio of one diameter to another be one-half or Jess, there will be three times the ratio between the spheres. the diameter of another, the smaller sphere will be 3 of } of 4 or } of the larger ;.and if the diameter be 4, the smaller sphere will be } of 3 of 3 or az of the larger, and so on., Therefore, if the case be as those have con-

For instance, if the diameter of one sphere be half

jectured, the volume of a star of the Ist magnitude will be greater than that of one of the 6th by a very considerable difference.

The largest of the fixed stars that have been observed, is 222 times, and the smallest of them twenty-three times as large as the earth. From their multitude they cannot be numbered, but the position of 1022% has

been fixed. Of these—

prefixed, as is customary, to the several names the simple Arabic article, which in pronunciation must, of _course, be altered before solar letters into the homogeneous euphonic tashd{d.

1 Humboldt remarks that at the period of Mongolian supremacy in the 15th century, when astronomy flourished at Samarkand under Ulugh Beg, photome- tric determinations were facilitated by the subdivision of each of the six classes of Hipparchus and Ptolemy into three subordinate groups: distinctions being drawn between the small, intermediate and large stars of the second magnitude. Some MSS. of the Almagest refer to these subdivisions as they add peifwv or éAdoowr to the determination of magni- tades. Cosmos, III, 121-2. Otte’s Trans.

% This is the catalogue of Hipparchas

which gives the longitudes and Jatitades of the number described, by their posi- tion in the constellations as shown in the 8th book of the Almagest Montycla observes that onky 1,022 were observed,: though there are a great many more, and some among them visible to the naked eye, but ths number is far below what is valgarly imagined. Hist.’ des Math. I, p. 295. I add on thg authority of Humboldt. (Cosmos III, 143) that Pliny could count only 1,600 stars visible in the fine sky of Italy. In this enumera- tion he had descended te stars of | the Sth, whilst half a century later Ptolemy in- dicated only 1,025 stays down to the 6th Magnitude. The number of stars visible - to the naked eye in the horizon of Berlin, Humboldt gives as 4,022 and in that of Alexandria 4,638, °

DESCRIPTION OF THE EARTH. 25

15 are of the lst Magnitude. 474 are of the 4th Magnitude. 45 ” ” 2nd ” 217 ” ” 5th ” 208 , , 3rd a 49 ,, 4, 6th A, There are besides, 14 whose magnitudes are not catalogued, nine of which are obscure and five nebular. This is the theory of Ptolemy. Ac- cording to Abddl Rahman-b.-Omar al Sufi,’!

37 are of .the 2nd magnitude 200, o 3rd i 421, % 4th 3 267_—Ci, Py 5th . 70, 7 6th ”

and four nebular. at

DeEscriprion oF THE Harta.

The Earth is spherical and its centre is the centre of the Universe. The elevations and depressions caused by the action of water or violence of the winds do not affect its spheroidity. Its circumference is 5,039 yojana,§ 2 kos, 1,154 dand. The ancient Greeks reckoned the circumference to be 8,000 farsakh ond its diameter 2,545,5, farsakh. Modern geometers give 6,700 “farsekh for the circumference and 2,163.4 farsakh for the diameter, All concur in making one farsakh equal to 3 miles.

The Hindu philosophers have the following rule for determining the diameter and circumference To find the circumference. Multiply the given diameter which they call biydast by the multiplier 3,927 termed gunit,’ and divide the product by the divisor 1,250 called bhdég;® and the

quotient, labdhi7 will be the circumference.’ To find the diameter, Mul-

4.There is little known of this astrono-

~196 B. C.), determined by a method mer, but that he was a native of Rai, and

identical with that which would be om-

according to D’Herbelot, preceptor of Adhadul Danlah of the Bowide dynasty. Hammer Purgstall gives the date of his death in A. H. 376, (A. D. 986) at the age of 85. Teavas the author of a work ‘on the fixed stars with illustrations and two others less important. = The ¢alculations are discrepant. Palisa repkons 8,026 34 and its diameter 1,600, while Brahmagupta gives 5,000 and 1,581 respectively eand Ibn Tarik 6,596.9, and 2,100. Albirdni, India, pp. 312 I, 66 II. :

• The calculation of Eratosthenos (276 4

ployed by a modern astronomer, gives the circumferenco at 250,000 stadia; Posidonius (135 B.C.) mado it 240,000 stadia or 30,000 miles. Lewis, Astron. of the Anc. pp. 199-215.

• Qld, bydsam. Sansk.

5 TU, gunaka. Do.

8 ISTH, badjuka. Do.

1 @fai, labdhi. ‘Do.

® The rule in the Surya-Siddhinta is to multiply the square of tho dinmeter by 10, and the square root of the product will be the circumference. The diameter

26 DESCRIPTION OF THE EARTH.

tiply the given circumference by 1,250 the former divisor, and divide the product by 3,927, the former multiplier, and the quotient will be the diameter. The rule of Archimedes as given in Greek works, is accepted by the Hindus in the same manner, as an approximate calculation. The gist of the rule is that the relation of the diameter to the circumference is the ratio-of 7: 22, or about thrice the diameter and one-seventh. Any given diameter is multiplied by 22, and divided by 7, the quotient being the circumference. Again the circumference multiplied by 7 and divided by 22 gives the diameter. The fraction, however, is really less than } and greater than $9.1 It is evident that the Hindu rule was unknown to the Greeks or they would have vaunted it in their own praise. Glory be to Him who alone knoweth the relation of the diameter to the circumference, Now the method of ascertaining the diameter of the (earth’s) circum- ference was after this manner. On a level plain by means of instruments like the astrolabe, the armillary sphere or the quadrant of altitude, taking the elevation of the north pole of the Equinoctial, they proceed northwards, or southwards on the meridian line guided by the astrolabe, and raise the vertical indices above the plane of the circle so that they cover one another. And thus a distance is traversed which exceeds, or is less than the elevation above-mentioned by one degree. If the advance be to the north, it will increase; if to the south, the reverse. The distance from beginning to end is measured and the result forms a degree. Thus the circumference is found. 4 The ancients by this operation found the degree to be 22 farsakh and 2 or 663 miles. When the plain of Sanjir near Mausil, was selected by the Caliph Al Mamin for this experiment, Khilid-b.-Abdu’l Malik Marwarddi with a body of scientific men went towards the north, and Ali.-b.-Isa Usturlabi with another to the south. The former party found the degree longer than the latter; for when each had measured their respective dis- tances, it was found to be 18% fursakh or 562 miles. The difference

ig taken at 1,600 yojana. Puliga reckons the relation of the diameter to the cir-

tions. Ist, every circle is equal to a right angled triangle of which®the sides con-

cumference as 1,250: 3,927, and Brahma- taining the right angle are equal respec-

gupta as nearly 12,959: 40,980. Albirini, Il. 71—72.

1 According to Albirdni, Archimedes defined it to be something between #3 and}}. (Chap. XV. p. 80), but the statement of Abul Fazl is correct. The book of Archimedes on the Dimensions of the Circle consists of three proposi-

tively to its radius and circumference. 2nd, the ratio of the arca of te circle to the square of its diameter is newly that of 11 to 14. 8rd, the circumference of tha circle ig greater tha three times its diameter by a quantity greater than }? of the diameter, but less than + of the same. Smith. Art, Archim.

DESCRIPTION OF THE EARTH. 27

between the two was $ of a mile! Maman as a test, asked the two parties the distance between Mecca and Baghdad. According to the above calcula- tion, multiplying 12° 40’ by 563 miles which is a degree, they made the dis- tance to be 720 kos. By the order of the Caliph the most level and short- est route between the two cities was measured and the difference was found to be slight. It is strange that the accurate (Nasiru’ddin) Tusiin his _Tadkirah (wl Nasiriyah. Liber Memorialis de astronomia) should ascribe to the ancients what is related of the astronomers of Mimin’s age regarding the measurement of a degree in the plain of Sanjar. Mulla Kutbu’ddin Shiré- zi> in his Tuhfat (u’l Shahiyah donum regium) and other works, expresses the opinion of the moderns in regard to the astronomers of that Caliph, in the manner I hgye related. There has been undoubtedly a slip of the pen in the Tadkirah. The Hindu astronomers make the degree 14 yojanas, 436 dand, 2 cubits and 4 digits, and explain it after the former manner. Also on a level plain at sunrise they regulate the course of gharis by means of the Stktajantra which is an instrument like an hour-glass, measured for 60 gharis. With this they walk eastwards. After 84 yojanas and a fraction, there is a difference of one ghari and the day advanced by that time.* This multiplied by 60 gives the circumference of the Earth.

• Mr. ‘Reuben Barrow here remarks, that from the spheroidity of the earth, the degrees ought to increase towards the north ; but this difference is much greater than it ought to be according to theory.

• Mr. Barrow here notes in Gladwin’s work, that as the true length of a degree is ¥etween 69 and 70 miles, and there is reason to believe that the mensnres could not be far wrong, it follows that we have not the true length of thoir measares.

• Haji Khalifah gives the year of his death as A.@. 720 (A. D. 1370). He composed the astronomical work alluded to, for the Emir Shih Muhammad-b.-Mu- tazz-b.-Tahjy.

• Mr. Renben Barrow’s note on thie is as follows: “ Their intent was evidently to measnre a degtee of longitude in a parallel circle. The principle of the me- thod was the same as that of onr modern longitude watches; and the general

practice was to adjust the Siktajantra to the time of the meridian they set out from: and to go eastward till the differ. ence of the times shewn by it and by ob- servation appeared to be one ghari. For if the instrament was exact, whatever meridian it was carried ander, it would still continue to show the time ander the meridian of the first place: and if the place arrived at was one degree more to the east, the time found at that place (whether by the suo’s rising or any other method) would be one gharf more, and so in proportion; and this is what is meant by the day being more advanced. The

_ Hindus must doubtless have observed the

necessity of allowing for the change of declination in the time of sunrise; but according to the mode prescribed by the author, it would be reqnisite to restrict the time of making tho exporiment to that of the solstice.”

28 DESCRIPTION OF THE INSULAR CONTINENTS.

Descrietion oF THE INsuLAR CONTINENTS.

The Hindu philosophers describe the terraqucous globe as comprising seven insular continents and seven seas, the whole area of land and sea measuring! 7,957,750 yojanas.

1. Jambu Dwipa* is an island surrounded by the ocean, and is the habitation of the human race and the greater part of the animal crea- tion. They consider it together with half the ocean, as equal toa half of the whole globe. The breadth of the ocean is 130 yojanas, and the breadth of the island is 1,265 yojanas, of which 65 are water, and the superficial area of this island with the sea is 3,978,875 yojanas, of which 417,360 are water. They say that in the centre of the Earth is a moun- tain of gold like an axis, and that part of it which with reference to Jambu Dwipa is above the Earth, is called Suméru and is 84,000 yojanas high. They believe that the degrees of paradise are on its summit and around its sides. It is said to be the same depth below the surface, and this is known as Badwinal and exfraordinary fables are told of it. This is the account of the fanatical traditionists of this people, but the learned among them, like the Greeks, do not admit of a height over 2} farsakh.

2. Shdka-dwipa: half the sea boands it on one side, and its superfi- cial extent is 427,424 yojanas. Beyond this is a sea of milk, of 801,097

yojanas.

3. Shdlmali Dwipa ; 320,120 yojanas. Beyond this is a sea of curds, of .

633,553 yojanas.

1 Var. 7,957,752.

2 The description of these islands, their extent, position and reference to Buro- pean Geography, form a literature of their own, too disputed and uncertain in their details for dogmatism, were the Paranic Cosmography credible enough to be worth it. ‘‘ Manifold are the opinions of people,” says Brahmagupta, “relating to the description of the earth and to Mount Meru, particularly among those who study the Puranas and the religious literature.” I content myself with in- divating for reference, Chaps. XX to XXXII of Albirdini, and the Vishna Pu- rana which represents the geographical system of the rest. To these may be added the dissertation of the confident bat unsafe Wilford on the Sacred Isles

of the West in the VIIE Vol. of the As. Res. which will satisfy by bewildering the curiosity of the reader, The text has - Jamma, instead of Jambu, the insylar continent deriving its name from the Jambu tree, the Eugenia Jambu, the Engenia Moluccensis of Linneus and J. domestica of Rumphius who considers it as the most exquisite of the tropical fruits after the mangustin. Ed. Sev. J, 32. The Vishna Purina mnakos the apples of this tree as large as elephants : when they are rotten they fall upon the crest of the mountain and from their&xpressed juice ig formed the Jambu rivor, the waters of which enable those yho drink them to pass their days in content and health, subject neither to decrepitade nor to decay.

DESCRIPTION OF JAMBU DWIPA. 29

4, Kusha Dwipa: 286,749 yojanas. Beyond this is a sca of butter, of

459,792 yojanas.

5. Krauncha Dwipa: 181,684 yojanas. The sea beyond is the juice of

sugarcane, of 250,504 yojanas.

6. Gomedaka Duipa: 86,580 yojanas.

71,648 yojanas. 7. Pushkara Dwipa: water, of 28,160 yojanas.

14,204 yojanas.

The ser beyond is of wine, of

Beyond is the sea of sweet

The breadth of each sea is 130 yojanas, and the breadth of each island, 70 yojanas. . In these six last Dwzpas, are located the degrees of the lower

regions.

land 4,878,278 yajanas.

The seven seas measure together 3,079,474 yojanas and the dry

The habitation of men and animals extends to the 53rd degree of latitude, being 728 yojanas.

Descrirtion or Jamau Dwira.

The legends regarding the six islands being beyond the limits of credi- bility, I put them aside and confine myself to a few particulars regarding Jambu.

Dividing the ocean, at each of the fonr cardinal directions with relation to the equatorial line, stands a city whose fenced walls are of bricks of gold. 1. Yamakéti. Tho earth’s longitude is reckoned from this, but in the Greek treatises the Hindu canon is said to be based as 0° of longitude)

on Gangdizh,| the Grecks being really unaware from what point their

1 This is said to be a fortress built by Zohak in the city of Babylon. Some ac- cofint of it will be found in the 2 Vol. (Macan’s edit.) of the Shahnémah. Thi- ther, fled Afrasiib pursued by Kai Khusran and the fort was twice captured by him. In the Shéhnémnh it appears to be the oi- tadel of Gangbihisht, the capital of Afra- siab, and ned® it flowed the river Zirah which Kai Khusrau crossed in his second attack. Firdausi presumes upon either the ignoramce or the geographical know- ledge of his readers, and leaves them to believe or digoover its existence. Accord- ing to Albirdni, ‘Abu Maashar based bis canon on thia place as a first meridian, See Reinand’s Introduction to Abuifoda’s Geog. V, ocxx, et seq., Kang or Kangkin,

he snys, is according to ancient Chinese writors Sogdiana. Rawlinson thinks it to be a Pehlevi word meaning ‘ heaven,’ and Hyde (De relig. Vet. Pers.) considers it synonymons with the terrestrial Para- dise. he name appears as Cancadora in a note to Humboldt’s Cosmos II, (Otté). Reinand’s interesting dissertation on this meridian and that of Arip or Azin will re- pay perusal. [le considers the latter name to be ® corruption of Ptolemy’s ’O¢4rn transliterated as Ozein wat by the Arabs which by copyists’ omission of diacritical points became G2)! and thus lost its trae pronunciation. This is confirmed by the fact that the Hindus called thea first meridian indifferently.

30 DESCRIPTION OF JAMBU DWIPA.

longitude was taken. 2. Lanka. 3. Siddhapira. 4. Romaka. Pach of these is distant 90 degrees from its neighbour and 180° from that which is opposite to it. The mountain Suméru is distant 9° from each. The northern sides of these lie under the equinoctial circle which in Sanskrit is called Vishavad-vritta.? This circle passes over the zenith of the inhabitants of these four cities, and the sun twice in the year reaches the zenith, and day and night throughout the year are nearly equal. The greatest altitude of the sun is 90.° His progression is from Lanka to Romaka, from thence to Siddhapira, continuing to Yamakoti and back to Lanka. When the sun is in the meridian of Yamakoti, it is sunrise at Lanka, sunset at Siddhapira, and midnight at Romaka, and when it is midday in Lanka, it rises at Romaka, sets at Yamakoti, and is midnight at Siddhaptira. When he isin the meridian of Romaka, it is sunrise at Siddhapura, sunset at Lanka and midnight at Yamakoti. When in the meridian of Siddhapira, the sun rises at Yamakoti, sets at Romaka and it is midnight at Lanka. There is a difference of 15 gharis between each of these four places.

Again, north of Lanka fowards Suméru there are said to be three mountains: Himdchala,3 Hemakita and Nishadha. These three mountains in this order stretch across from the shore of the eastern sea to the western quarter. From Siddhapira to Suméru also are three other ranges . S‘ringa-vanta, S’ukla, and Nila. There is another mountain between Yama- koti and Suméru, called Mdlyavanta adjoining Nishadha and Nila, and another between Romaka and Suméru called Gandhamddana whose extremes meet the same two ranges.

Extraordinary are the legends regarding these mountains which can- not here be particularised, but something shall be set down of the region between Lanka and Himdchala, and a little stand exemplar for much. This intervening country is called Bhdrata-khanda. Bhérata was a mighty sovereign and this tract was named after him. From Lanka to Himichala which is 52 degrees, the country is inhabited, the settlements being parti- cularly frequent up to the 48th degree, and less so through the remaining four, on account of the extreme cold.

According to their supposition a celestial degree is equal tg 14 yojanas on earth; the whole fifty-two degrees therefore are 728 yojanas which they

1 Lanka and Ujjain. With Adelard de a favaga e Bath, Gerard of Cremona, Albert the 8 Himavaw is the name in thesVishna Great and Rogor Bacon the name ap- Purana. Hima in Sanskrit signifies snow, pears as Arim or Arym, and this place and in a derivative forrt the name may received the name of the Cupola of the be traced in the Thracian Hoomus.

earth which was also applied to Lanka. Rein, coxlviii. I.

DESCRIPTION OF JAMBU DWIPA. 31

consider to represent the habitable world. Between Himichala and Hema- kita lies Kinnara-khanda comprising 12 degrees of latitude. Between Hema- - kata and Nishadha is Harikhanda comprising the same number of degrees. Between Siddhaptra and Sringa-vanta is Kuru-khanda occupying 52 degrees. Between Sringa-vanta and Shukla lies Hiranmaya-khand with 12 degrees of latitude, the whole of which is of gold. Between Shukla and Nila is the tract called Ramyaka-khanda comprising the same number of degrees of latitude, and between Yamakoti and Milyavanta is Bhadrasva-khanda with an extent of 76°. Intermediate between Gandhamadana and Romaka is Ketumdla of 76°. Between Malyavanta, Gandhamadana, Nishadha and Nila is Idévrita and extends 14° on each qaarter.!’ The superficial measurement of these nine divisions is said to be equal, though the breadth of some is less than that of others.

On the four sides of Suméru are four other mountains; that on the side of Yamakoti is called Mandara ; that towards Lanka, Sugandha Parvata jon the Romaka quarter, Vipula, and towards Siddhaptra, Supérsva. The height of each is 18,000 yojanas.

The nine divisions of Jambu-dwipa having been recorded, I now proceed to relate some particulars of the first division, Bhérata-khanda. Between Lanka and Himachala are said to be seven mountain ranges, ex- tending from east to west and smaller than the former ranges. These are, Mahendra, S’ukti, Malaya, Riksha, Pdriyétra, Sahya, Vindhyd&

The tract between Lanka and Mahendra is called Indra-khanda; be- tween it and Sukti, Kaser ; between Sukti and Malaya, Témravarra; between Malaya and Riksha, Gabhasti-mat; between Riksha and Pariyatra, Ndg- khanda; between Pariydtra and Sahya, Saumyakhanda. The tract between Sahya and Vindhya is divided in two parts, the eastern of which is called Kuméra-khanda, and the western Vdruna-khanda’,

The upper half of the ‘globe would be represented by the accompany- ing plate.

1 These tracts were named ufter the nine sons of Agnidhra, the king of Jambu-dwipa,@&vho were named, Nabhi, Kimpurasha, Marivarsha, Ilavrita, Ramya, Hiranvat, Kuru, Bhadré$va, and Ketu- mala, Vishnu, Par. See also the Sid- dhénta Siromani where all these names and divisions occur.

2 I correct thé readings of the text from the Vishnu Paréya. The Mahindra chain extends from Orissa to Gondwana, part of which near Gayjam is still called

Mahindra Malei or hills of Mahindra, Sakti or Suktimat is doubtfol. Sahya is the northern portion of the Ghats, the mountains of the Konkan; Riksha, the mountains of Gondwana. Vindhya is here restricted to the eastern division of the chain. Pdriydtra or Paripdtra is the northern and western portion. The olas- sification seems to have been known to Ptolemy. See Wilson’s note. Vish. P.174. 8 For Koméra, whioh is Kumérika in Wilford, the Vishnu P. has Gandharva.

32 DESCRIPTION OF JAMBU DWIPA.

Lacuna.

The Hindus also divide the world into three regions. The upper is named Swar-loka, where the good receive the reward of thei virtuous life. The middle region is Bhir-loka, which is the abode of mankind. The lower is called Pdétdla-loka, where the wicked receive the punishment of their evil deeds.

The religious teachers of this creed conceive the world to be a super- ficies divide into fourteen parts. Seven supcrior, viz., Bhir-loka, Swar-loka, Mahar-loka, Jana-loka, Tapo-loka and Satya-loka; and the same number inferior, Atala, Sutala, Vitala, Taldtala, Mahdtala, Rasdtala, and Patala. They relate extraordinary legends regarding the inhabitants of cach region which cannot be inserted in a summary narrative.

This people also speak of scven seas and seven islands (dwezpas), and nine divisions of Jambu-dwipa, but there is considerably diversity in their order, extent and other particulars ; as for instance, the mountain Suméru is reckoned to be 84,000 yojanss above ground, and 32,000 in breadth and 16,000 below the surface of the earth and the same in breadth. The habitable earth is not confined, they think, only to Bharatakhanda nor even to Jambu-dwipa. They say that beyond the ocean there is a land of gold® which is the abode of men. Their duration of life extends to a thousand years, neither more nor less. Sickness and grief come not nigh them, neither have they fear nor greed nor ignorance. They follow not evil speaking nor jealousy nor calumny and live in peace, in rectitude and in charity. They lose not the vigour of youth, neither are they invaded by weakness or decrepitude. no distinction of food or clothing, and their wishes are gratificd without toil. Of the other islands in like manner are wonderful legends told whjch the ordinary rigid formalist would not admit to a hearing, but do not surprise the adoring believer in Divine Omnipotence.

They also divide Kumérakhanda into two parts. The country where the black antelope is not found they call Mlechchha-deS,3 and regard it with

They are of the same creed and race and have

l These are somewhat varied in the different Pardnas.

8 This is Pushkara the 7th Dwfpa, and recalls “the land of Hevilath where gold groweth” in the 2nd Chap. of Genesis.

8 The Mlechchhas are the Kirdtas of the Vishnu Par., the inhabitants of the mountains east of Hindustan according to H.H. Wilson. Wilford places them in the mountains of the Deccan. All this

passngo ie taken from thdordinances of Manu and the names are marred in the taking. Manu writes as follows in Sir W. Jones’ translation : Chap. 6I.

(17.) Between the two divine rivers Saraswati and Drishadwati lies the tract of land which the sfges have named Brahmavarta because it was frequented by gods.

(19.) Kurukshgtra, Mutsya, Panohiéla

ON TERRESTRIAL LONGITUDE. 33

contempt and unworthy of existence. The region where that animal is indigenous is called Jag-des, and it is subdivided into four parts. 1 Arya: varta, bounded on the cast and west by the ocean, and north and south by two mountain ranges of Hindustién: 2 Madkya-des, to the east of which is IMahdbis and to the west the river Vinasa, twenty-five kés from Thanesar, and bounded to the north and south by the same ranges. 3 Brahmarikh- deg (Brahmarshi), comprises five places: 1, Thanesar and its dependencies ; 2, Bairath (var. Pairith); 3, Kampila (var. Kanilah), 4, Mathura; 5, Kananj. 4 Brahmdvarta, the fertile tract between the Sarsuti (Saraswati) and Rikasi (Drishadwati) rivers,

wv On TeRRESTRIAL LONGITUDE.

The Hindus term longitude lambana, and make it consist of 180°, after the manner of the Greeks. They reckon its beginning (as 0° of longitude) from Yamakoti in the farthest east, apparently because following the gove- ment of night and day, the nearest point te its origin is selected. The Greeks reckon from the Islands of the Blest. There are six! islands of the western occan formerly inhabited, but now submerged beneath the sea. From their delightful climate, their choice production of fruits and flowers and the luxuriance of their vegetation, they wero accounted a paradise. Men call them the Etornal Islands ( w!s/& ) or the Fortunate (foaw ). Some

or Kényakabja Surasena or Mathura form the region called Brahmarshi, distin- guished from Brahmévarta.

(21.) That country which lios between Himavat and Vindhy& to the east of Vinasana and to the west of Praydga, is celebrated by the title of Madhya-desa or the central region.

(22.) As far as the eastern and as far as the wastern oceans, between the: tira mountains just mentioned lies the tract which the wise have named Ariavarta, or inhabited by respectable men.

Burnell in his translation explains Vina- Sana as thee terminus of the Saraswati. Pray&ga & of course, Allahabad. Wilford identifies the Drishadwati as the Caggar or Gagar, bat the fourses of these rivers must have considerably altered. Cf. Wilson, Vishnu Parana, p. 18), note.

1 The number mentipned by Ptolemy and Pliny instead of seven, the actual

5

number of the af rév Maxdpwy vijoot. They include specifically the Canary Islands and the Madeira group, though the Azores and the Cape de Verde have shared the distinction. A table of their ancient and modern names will be found in W. Smith’s Dict. Of these Canaria is still retained and said to have been given from the multitude of dogs that van wild there. Nivyaria, antly describes Teneriffe, and Ferro was the chief meri- dian from which longitudes were reckon- ed before their computation from national observatories. It is here at the extreme of the earth, weipara yaths, that Homor places the abode of the yellow-haired Rhadamanthas and the Elysian fields. Od. IV, 565. In the 2nd Book of the AAH@HE TETOPIA Lucian narrates his visit to the island and describes the chief city in terms that recall the new Jerusalem of the Apocalypse. His ad-

34 ON TERRESTRIAL LONGITUDE.

assert that the Fortunate Isles are 24 in number between the Eternal Islands and the sea-shore. Of the Greeks, some take the reckoning of lon- gitude from the shore of the western (Atlantic) ocean which they call ’Qxeavds,! which is 10° east of the Etexnal Islands. The distance of the shore from the islands in 2223 farsakh according to the system of the ancients, or 189% farsakh according to the moderns, the latter being guided to this conclusion by observation of the motion of the Zodiacal signs in” succession and the proximity of the place. In the longitudinal reckoning of places both are agreed. The longitude is an arc of the equatorial between its point of upper intersection with the meridian measured from the begin- ing of the habitable earth (the first meridian), and its point of upper intersection with the meridian of the given place, and the interval is the distance between the place and the first meridian at its nearest side®

To find the longitude ; at the first meridian or a place whose longitude

e ventures would seem to havo inspired

the pen of Mandeville and have. fore- stalled Miinchausen.

Reinaud notices the distinction or con- fasion made by the Arabs between the Eternal Isles or Islands of the Blest, and the Fortanate Isles, Abulfeda confounds them but Ibn Sayd places the Fortunate Isles among the Eternal and about them, making the latter 6 in number and the former 24 and distributing them among the 1st, 2nd, and 8rd climates between the 16th and 30th degrees of north latitade, thus allowing the inference that the For- tunate Isles are the Canaries and the Eternal the Cape de Verde. Geog. Abulf. Introd. ecxxxiv.

1 According to sefrarment of Phavo-

rinus, not a Greek word, but derivea trom

or simply the Ocean. Smith’s Dict. Geog.

Avienus well expresses the mysterions

dangers that confronted a mariner on

its unknown waters beyond the pillars

of Hercules.

porro in occidanm plagam. Ab his colgmnis gurgitem esse intermi- num, Late patere pelagas, exténdi salum, Himilco tradit; nullus haeo adiit freta: Nullus carinas aequor illnd intulit, Desint quod alto flabra propellentia, Nallusque puppim spiritus coli juvet: Dehinc qnod aethram quodam amictu ves- tiat

. Caligo, semper nebula condat gurgitim

Oceanus iste est, orbis effusi procal

the barbariana probably connected with Sanskrit. Among the Greeks the son of Uranus and Gaia, became in physical geography, a river or stream circumfinent round the earth, and the large expanses of water are distingnished by Herodotus as seas. But the idea of the encircling waters became transferred as a se- condary meaning to the ocean and spe- cifically to the Atlantic which was called the Great Sea, the Outer Sea,the Atlantic

Circumlatrator, iste Pontis maximus Orss Maritimes. & This is the literal translation, but it must be taken to include the meaning that the aro of the eqnator indercepted between the two meridinns may be rec- koned on any parallePof latitude as well as on the equator. It must be remem- bered with reference to what is termed the point of upper intersection that all south of the equator is supposed to be

ON TERRESTRIAL LATITUDE. 35

is known, observe the exact time of the occultation of light ina lunar eclipse, its duration and initial or total reappearance, and let a similar observation be made at the place whose unknown longitude is required. If the time be the same on both, their longitude will be the same. If the time be later at the place required, the city is more to the eastward.!_ The difference of the times of observation is taken, and.an excess in the number of degrees over the place whose longitude is known, is allotted on the calculation of six degrees for every ghari and fifteen degrees for every hour, reckoning 4 minutes to the degree If the time be earlier, the city is more westerly and the calcuiation is the reverse of that for the east. According to the system of the Hindu astronomers who begin their reckoning of longitude from the east, iw. the first instance, the number of degrees will diminish, and in the second case, increase.

On TrrrestriaL Larirups.

This is called by the Hindus Aksha. Itis reckoned from Lanka and carried to the 52nd degree of latitude. All within this region is populous, but less so up to 14° further (north) on account of the severity of the cold. The Greoks reckon their latitude from the equator, and as their circle passes through Lanka, there is no discrepancy and the result is the same. The latitude of a place is an arc extending from the equator between the meridian of the place, and its upper intersection with the equinoctial. In short it is the distance of the meridian of the city from the equinoctial, and that is the degroe of the elevation of the pole (above the horizon of the place).

To find the latitude? Take the altitude of a (cireumpolar) star that is

—_— water and uninhabited and that therefore the upper half circle only of the equa- torial is considered.

1 The role in the Surya Siddhanta is as follows : :

At the givea place if the Moon’s total darkness (in her eclipse) begins or ends after the instant when it begins or ends at the Midge line of the Earth, then the givan placé is B. of the Middle line, (but if it begins or ends) before the ins- tant (when it begins or ends on the Middle line, thon) the given place is west of the Middle line

3 “After having found the longitudi- val difference between two places, he

observes a lunar eclipse and fixes in day- minutes, the difference between the time of its appearance in the two places. Pulisa maliplies these day-minutes by the circumference of the earth, and divides the product by 60, viz., the minutes (or 60th parts) of the daily revo- lution. The quotientis the namber of the yojanas of the distance between the two places.” Albirdni, India, xxxi, Sach, p. 818 I.

8 Albirdni says in his 29th Chapter on India, that the Hindu method of deter- mining the latitude of a place had not come to his knowledge.

36 ON TERRESTRIAL LATITUDE,

constantly visible, and ascertain its highest and lowest points of ascension Subtract the lesser from the greater and add half the remainder to the lesser, or subtract it from the greater.. The result of this process of addi- tion and subtraction gives the latitude of the place. Or

During either equinox, take the altitude of the sun at noon. Subtract this from 90° and the remainder is the latitude of the place. Or

When the sun enters the first of Cancer, take its greatest altitude and subtract its total declination. The remainder will give the co-latitude. Subtract this from 90° and the remainder gives the latitude of the place.

Every place whose longitude is less than 90° is called west longitude, and greater than 90° east longitude. According to the Hindus it is the re- verse, Every place whose latitude is less than 33°, is south, and greater than 338°, north latitude.!

In order to ascertain the (times of) wordly events, at the sun’s first entry into Aries, they observe its rising at Lanka, and finding the horos- cope, they assemble to determjne the calculation and this they call Lank- udaya Lagna* The oblique ascension is used to determine the relative con- ditions of any particular place, and is called Nagr-udaya Lagna. The Greeks

1 As beforo remarked, all below the equator ig supposed to be water and does not count as latitude, and the upper hemisphere only, represents the olxoupévn, and as Albirdni says in his XVIII Chap-

ter the reader is to imagine the habitable’

world as lying on the northern half of the earth, or more accurately in one-half of this half, i. e., in one of the quarters of the earth.

The etymology of these terms is

thus given in the Siddhinta Siromani.

That point of the ecliptic which is, at any time, on the eastern horizon is call- ed the Lagna or horoscope. This is ex- pressed in signs and degrees and reckoned from the first point of stellar Aries. That point which is on the western horizon is called the Asta-Lagna or set- ting horoscope. The point of the ecliptic of tha meridian is called the Madhya- Lagna or middle horoscope (culminat- ing point of the ecliptic.) The Udaya- Lagna ia the rising horoscope or the point of the ecliptic which comes to the

observe this system, but they have two ascendens or horoscopes, one at the

eastern horizon at the same time with the planet, its Asta-Lagna being the set- ting horoscope or the point of the ecliptic which is on the eastern horizon when the planet reaches the western horizon. According toa paper in the As. Reg. If, by Samuel Davis, the Hindus signify by the Lagna of Lanka, those points of the equator which rise respectively with each 30th degree of the ecliptic in a right sphere, answering to the right ascension in any latitude. By the Lagna of any particular place, the oblique as- cension or the divisions of the equator which rise in succession with each sign in an oblique sphere, By the horoscope is signified the point of the ecliptic rising ata given time after sunrige, Che rule to find which is given in the SuryaSiddhénta, (Bipu Deva, p. 39)., The omphalos which marked Delphi as the centre of Greece and of the Earth, existed in the temple of Delphi during the historic

period,

ON TERRESTRIAL LATITUDE, 3?

extreme east to ascertain the circumstances of one hemisphere and the second at the cupola of the earth which is the means of discovering the conditions of the other. They consider that as the circle of the meridian cuts the globe of the earth, it appears as a circle on its circumference and intersects the equatorial line. The pvint of intersection (Lanka) is called the cupola or the centre of the earth. Some suppose the cupola to be in the middle of the olkouzéy, that is at a spot situated in Lon. 90°, Lat. 33°. Others place it in the fourth climate, Lon. 9°, Lat 36°.

A brief description of the cosmogony according to the strange theo- vies of Hindu sages having been given, I here note some particulars of the

system of the Greeks to relieve the dryness of this exposition.

There are pjne integral! heavens.

1. The greatest heaven, called also

1 The Istiléhéta’] Funin describes the heavens (SSI ) as of two kinds: (1) the integral or independent ( axl ) which are not parts of other heavens, and, (2) the

supplemental or dependent ( Xj ) that are so. The integral sphere is simple ( 994 ) when it has no dependent sphere, such as the great or crystalline heaven ; and it is compound (Sy ) if it has auch, like the heavens of the planets. Its defi- nition of the word “heaven” (ets)

corresponds to that of view? at p. 14, The great or crystalline heaven, the sphere kar’ éfoxqv which includes all othtrs is called also the heaven of heavens, the universal heaven (JS) SS) the starless, the lofty, the all-comprehending, &c. It is the primum mobdile having a swift motion from E. to W. completed in less than 24 hours, and its movement carries round the other heavens and all in them, for being itself the prime motor, it possesses the force to compel the mo- tion of all®ineluded by it, for it is tho motor of them in essentia rei and of all in them per accidews. See Art. ous > Pp 1185. This is almost the identical lan- gaagé of Blundevile’s Exercises as quoted by Aldis Wright in his edition of Bacon’s Essays, p. 57. The crystalline sphere of Auaximander was handed down to tho

middle ages as a cosmical theory and the firmament was supposed to capsist of from 8 @& 10 glassy spheres encasing each other like the coats of an onion. The vault was called crystalline from the supposed condensation of the air into a solid transparent body by the action of fiery ether. In the doctrine of Empedo- cles, the idea of transparency predomi- nated in the comparison with ice (xpio Taddos), no reference being made to the origin of ice through cold, for the fiery ether lay beyond the confines of the actual atmosphere and the stars were considered warm bodies. (Aristot. Meteor. 1, 3 De Ceelo, 11, 7). See Hamboldt. Kosmos. III, pp. 166—68. The passage in Milton is well-known regarding this sphere. They passed the planets seven, they

passod the fixed And that crystalline sphore whose balance _ Weighs The trepidation talked and that first

moved,

Par. Lost. III, pp. 484-7.

Albirdni (Cap. xx) accepting the neces- sity of eight spheres, sces no object in a ninth, which was unknown to Plato, as Aristotle proves that each moving body is brought into motion by something out- side itself and the mover of the ninth may move the sight without its intorvep- tion.

38 ON TERRESTRIAL LATITUDE.

the crystalline, whose revolution is the cause of night and day. 2. The heaven of the fixed stars. 3. The heaven of Mercury. 4. The heaven of Jupiter. 5. The heaven of Mars. 6. The heaven of the Sun. 7. The heaven of Venus. 8. The heaven of Mercury. 9. The heaven of the Moon. There are besides fifteen minor spheres. Again, the elemental spheres! are nine in number.

The first is of Fire: its convex adjoins the concave of the sphere of the moon.

The second, of Air: of ‘this there are four strata, viz., 1. volatilised where the fiuid is permeated by vapour, for the ascending vapours do not reach this point but become dissipated. It is here that comets, Zodiacal light,? luminous streams and meteors and the like have their origin. The Hindus regard them all as astral bodies of which they number a thousand kinds, and believe that they are always in existence but only occasionally

• visible? 2. predominant, where the shooting stars are observed : 3. boreal, which is a vaporous wind ayd extremely cold in which clouds, lightning, thunder and thunderbolts take their rise: 4. dense, and this adjoins the spheres of Water and Earth.

The third, of Water: this surrounds the earth and from the effect of light and contact with earth, does not retain its original purity and thus waters varying in sweet, saline, clear, and turbid qualities spring from the

soil and are diverse in their scantiness, excess, limpidity and density.

1 The elemental spheres are nambered by Achilles Tatins, See Sir E. Lewis, Astr. of the Anc., p. 178, and 99-101.

% The term Nezak or Nayzak (a short spear) was first applied, according to Humboldt, (Kosmos 1, 128 Otté), by the Court astronomers of Persia to the strange light never before observed, seen in 1688 in Persia and described by the great tra- veller Chardin. In his Aflas dw Voyage, however, he applies the term nydzak to the famous comet which appeared over nearly the whole world in 1688 and whose head was so hidden in the west that it could not be seen in the horizon of Is- pahan. Dominicus Cassini who was the first to investigate this phenomenon and who observed it in Bologna when it was seen by Chardin in Persia, has maintained with Mairan that the phenomenon ob- gerved in Porsia was the Zodiacal light. Humboldt expresses his wonder that so

striking a natural phenomenon which he had witnessed so often on the summits of the Andey and in the plains of Vene- zucla, shoald have failed to attract the attention of physicists and astronomers till the middle of the 17th century.

3 “‘The belief in the existence of non- luminous stars was diffused amongst the ancient Greeks and in the early ages of Christianity. The doubt as to the pass- ing away and reappearange of stars is expressed by Pliny in his mention of Hipparchus, ‘ Stelle an obirent nascoren- turve?’” The authority of, Humboldt is opposed to the doctrine‘of thar anni- hilation and affirms that the cosmical alteration is merely the transition of matter into new forms and that dark cosmical bodies may by a renewed pro- ceas of light aggin become luminous. Kosmos III, pp. 222—254. Otté.

EXTENT OF DESERT AND. HARITARLE LAND. 39

The fourth, Earth: this according to their notions lies in three strata (a) that which by the bounty of the Creator came forth from the waters and subjected to heat became dry land, wherein is the region of mountain and mine and the habitat of the greater number of animals; (8) clay, which is earth mixed with water; (y) earth simple, and this is about the centre of the globe.

Some writers blindly following traditional lore hold that the Earth like the heavens consists of seven vaults, and another school believes that the heavens overshadow them all, and that each earth is surrounded by @ mountain, as the mountain of K4éj! surrounds this habitable world. They also assert that the earths are of gold, and ruby and the like. Some pretend tliat beyond Kaf there are seventy regions of gold, followed by as many of musk and imagine similar extraordinary strata. Though fable may create a hundred other such fancies, no proof can substantiate them,

Extent oF Desert ann Hasiranie Lanp.

The equinoctial is a great circle, the two poles whereof are the two poles of the earth. The one which is in the direction of Ursa Minor ealled also Bandt u’n Naash, is the north pole. The constellation of the Kid? is adjacent to it. The other is the south pole} When the sun passes over this circle, night and day are of equal length in all places, either

1 Albirdni says (XXIII) that the moun- tain called by his people Kaf, is Loka- loka with the Hindus, (a fabuions belt of

Canopus which is always visible to them, marks the south. Reinand. Ibid. 8 “It is well known”, says Albirini

mountain boundary, beyond the seven seds and dividing the visible world from the regions of darkness). According to the Zoroastrians the mountain Ardiya bas a similar position. ‘The jewelled earths appear to be connected with the sides of Meru which are said to be of different gems?

8 (59>, It is nota constellation bat @ of Ursa Minor, ¢. ¢e., the polar star. Reinand (Abulf. I. exciv) calls it le Che- vreau and points out that its other sig- nification of Capricorn has led astray several savants, notably Silvestre de Saoy (Recueil des Notices t. VIII, p 146, et, 178). The Bear which does not set for those who live nortle of the equator, serves the Arabs to mark the north while

(xxii) “that the north pole with us is called the Great Bear, and the south pole, Canopus But some of onr people maintain that in the south of heaven too, there is a Great Bear of the same shape as the nor- thern, which revolves round the southero pole.” The Greek word zodos originally signified a ball or sphere and hence was applied to the cavity of the heavens. As the celestial vault has only a hemisphere, the word was afterwards used to denote the basin of a sundial, and at an early period was applied to the central point of the hemisphere or the vertex of the axjs of the sphere. Eudoxus employs it to de- note the star nearest the North pole. Its modern use was established at a later age. Lewis. Astr. of the Ano.

40 EXTENT OF DESERT AND HABITABLE LAND.

actually or approximately, and this occurs in the first of Aries and Libra. From this imaginary circle being drawn upon the concave surface of the magnus orbis, a great circle is delineated upon the earth which divides it into two-halves north and south, the periphery being called the equatorial line where night and day are always equal. :

The horizon is of two kinds, the real and the sensible, and the latter is to be understood in two ways. The first is a circle parallel to the real hori- zon and contiguous to the surface of the earth. The second is a circle which divides the visible portion of the sphere from the invisible, and this hori-. zon is also called the visible, the radial and the horizon of vision. The zenith and nadir are its two poles, which vary with the spectator and his position. The veal horizon is a great circle, having the same two poles, and the distance of the first sensible horizon from the real, is half the earth’s diameter, and by this the real horizon is obtained.| And as the equatorial line divides the earth into two halves, the northern and the southern, the circle of the real horizon divides those two halves again into two, an upper and a lower. Thus by these two circles, the earth is apportioned into four quarters, an upper and lower northern, and similar southern divisions, The Greeks supposed the northern quarter only to be above water, but they have determined this by no proof. Its creation was assigned to the power of the Sun, in order that animal life to which breathing is a necessity, might secure the capacity to exist and the wondrous power of human speech become manifest. Through the force of the celestial light and the accretional properties of matter in the upper regions, and by the action of the winds and the commotion of the seas, lofty mountains and marvel-

• lous configurations of hills and profound abysses were produced. And because the tendency of water is to flow downwards and the earth thereby becomes viscous, the fermentation of heat and the disintegrating process of time caused the rise of mountainous ranges,

When the sun culminates in the northern signs of the ecliptic from Aries to Virgo, its lowest declination from the equator will necessarily occur in the southern signs. From Libra to Pisces are the signgculminating in the winter solstice. At this time! the sun is nearest the sphere of the

1 That is, in those regions where the the water of the sea is degse @ecause the

sun’s rays fall directly and not obliquely upon the earth. So Albirdni says “The country §. of the Line is not known and the earth is too much burnt to be habit- able. Parts of the inhabited world do not reach nearer the equator than to a distance of several days journey. There

sun so intensely vapourises the fiarticles of water that fishes and other animals keep away from it wee ‘The san when reaching the perigee of his excentric sphere, stands nearly in its utmost south- ern declination and burns all the countries over which he culminates. Chronology,

EXTENT OF DESERT AND HABITABLE LAND. . 41

earth and the warmth is excessive, the heat absorbing moisture as may be witnessed by experiment with a lamp. The solstice continues in the same sign during 2,100 years and the entire revolution is made in 25,200 years, one-half of this period being occupied in the northern and the other in the southern signs.!’ It is now in the 3rd degree of Cancer and the opposite solstitial point is in the same degree of Capricorn. It is this ecliptic movement that has caused the northern quarter of the globe to become terra firma. Its superficial area, according to the ancients, is 5,090,000 and according to the moderns 3,678,233: farsakhk. The rule to find this is to multiply the diameter by } of the circumferenco and the product will be the measurement of the quarter of tho globe,* or divide the superficia), area of the whole globe by 4 and the quotient gives the area of the quarter. There is a difference of opinion as to whether the quarter of the globe was created terra firma or became so at a later period. The majority incline to the latter belief from the consideration of the proximity of the solstitial points. They affirm thatthe whole of the fourth part of the globe was terra firma, but that now a great part of it is sub- merged such as the eernal isiaeds, Greece and other places.

The otovpévy «8 declared not to extend jn latitude beyond the com- plement of the gratest declination of the Sun from the sguntars which is 66° 29’ 43,” acanimal life could not exist beyond this point from the severity of the cold. The superficial area of the oixovzévy is taken by the ancients from the equatorial line to a place whose latitude is equal to the complement of the sun’s greatest, declination from the equator. Accord- ing to the atrgdini Canon, the superficial area is 4,668,502,%5 farsakh and according to the moderns 3,370,992} farsakh. Some say that a portion of the upper southern quarter adjoining the northern quarter is ferra firme but not inhabited. Others affirm that it is inhabited as far as

249. Snchan’s Trans. Ibn Khalddin has’ a somewhat aimilar passage. Prolog. 86.

meter at 2,545,5,. This rale will apply to these figures and give 50,90,000 without

Ed. Quatremére.

1 The pregession of the equinoxes was discofered by Hipparchua. At that time tho point of the autumnal equinox was abont 6° east of Spica Virginis. In 1730, g.e., aSout 1900 years afterwards, ghis point was observed 26° 21’ west of that star. Hexce the equinoctial points Will make an entire revolution in 25,745 years,

® See p. 25 where the circumference is given at 8,000 farsakh and the dia-

6

the fraction.

8 That is to say, the greatest northern declination from the eqnator being ac- cording to our calculation 23° 27’ 27”; this subtracted from 90° will give the complement of the arc from the eqnator to the north pole; and this complement, vis, 66° 82’ 83” reckoned from the equator measures the limit, in the sense of the text, within which mon can live and beyond which in a northerly direction, they cannot,

42 EXTENT OF DESERT AND HABITABLE LAND.

10° south. Ptolemy! on his Geography allows 16° 25’ and near the Zanj and Abyssinian, further still. A few even suppose that the other three- fourths of the globe are also above water and inhabited.

Ancient traditions relate that Alexander after his conquest of the northern quarter of the globe, desiring to obtain some information of the remaining quarters and of the seas thereof, named several bold and scienti- fic explorers for this duty, and supplying them, confident in their provi- dential mission in the pursuit of knowledge, with six months’ provisions, embarked them in a sea-going vessel. After sailing day and night, through the period mentioned, they fell in with some vessels, but from diversity of tongues they were unable to understand each others’ intentions. A fight ensued and Alexander’s party was victorious. With some of the captives they intermarried. The children of these marriages spoke. the languages of both their parents and from these nurslings of life it was discovergd that a certain prince had despatched this band also with the same object, and after a threa months’ continuous sail the encounter had taken place. But this account is disputed.2 In other ancient writings it is related that Alexander sent out a party of scientifamen. thorongly pro. ~

. . 2 2 ficient in the knowledge giperitns languages, on an expedition by sea with

ree years, They were instructed to sail eastwards for a Mod of a year and a half towards the rising places of the stars, and then to return and relate their experiences. This party after sailing the ap- pointed time reached a flourishing coast and they learnt that they had penetrated to the country of Bactria. Alexander for a time appointed some of his ministers to the government of this province.

At the present day, those of more exact information declare that the south is inhabited in the same way as the north. Of lato years the Eurg- peans have discovered an extensive and populous insular continynt which they have called the New World. Some shattered vessels had been here driven ashore. A man mounted on horseback was seen by the inha- bitants. Mistaking the’ man and his horse for a single animal they were overcome by fear and the country fell an easy capture.

1 Ptolemy placed the southern limit of the habitable world as, Abul Fazl rightly states later in the parallel of 16} degrees of §. Lat. at Antimerote, and the north- ern limit in 63° N, Lat. which passes throagh Thule, supposed to be the Shet- lands. This range therefore include G04 degrees. The total degrees of longi-

tude of the habitable parts of the earth he accoants to be 1774. Cosmog, Fol Venet. 1486, Cap XTI and Me. Crindle- Ane. Ind. 5. e

% Such is the literal translation of thi8 ridiculous account bat nothing ia too childish or incredible for Abul Fazl’s narrative. be

DIVISION OF THE EARTH INTO COUNTRIES. 43

Division oF tue Earra into Countrtes.

The learned have divided the olxovpévy into seven parts, to each of which they have given the name of «Aivo.! Some reckon from the equator as Ptolemy shows in his Almagest.# Another school omitting 12° 45’ north of the equator, divide the remainder and terminate as is known at the 50° 31° parallel of latitude.’ In the former case, therefore, the parallels fromthe equator will be seven circles and in the latter, eight. The seven belts which these lines form are called climates. A climate therefore is a belt on the surface of the earth between two semi-circles parallel with each other and with the equator. A climate increases in length as it ap- proaches the equator; moreover its first parallel will be longer than its second. It is,@emonstrable from (experiment with) spheres that every parallel circle increases as it nears the equatorial line. The length of the first parallel of the first climate is said to be 11,856 miles approximately, and tho length of its second parallel 11,230, while the length of the last parallel of the seventh climate is 1,627 farsakh. But every climate, like the longitudinal extension of the earth from west to east, is divided into an

1 See p. 116, Vol. 2.

2 In the Almagest (II. 6) he marks ten climates north of the equator, begin- ning at the parallel of Taprobane in lat. 4° 15’ and ending at that of Thule in lat. 63°; and in the south, beginning at the equator or the parallel of Cape Raptum and ending at the parallel of Antimerde in 16° 25’. In the Geography he gives 19 climates; aa far as the 16th climate. which is the arctic circle, twelve are de- termined by the increase of half an hour in the length of the longest day, the 13th and 14th, one hour, and’the 15th and 16th, two hours. In the remaining climates within the arctic circle, the days no longer increase by hours but by months. Dict. of Antiq. W. Smith.

8 The double theory of longitude is thus explained by Albirdni in his KXIX Chap. (Sachau’s Transl. I. 8304). ‘Some adopt as the beginning of longitude the shore of the Atlantic Ocean and they extend the first quarter as far as the environs of Balkh …… So that Shaburgin and Djjain are placed onthe same meridian.

A theory which so little corresponds to reality is quite valacless. Othors adopt the Islands of the Happy Ones as the beginning of longitude and the quarters of the olxounévn they extend thence as far as the neighbonrhood of Jarjan and Nishapir.” That is, with Ptolemy’s divi- sion of the circumference of the globe into 860°, the 90° naturally fell in the middle of the habitable world and was taken ag the central meridian, This was accounted to pass through Lanka and Uj- jain but they deflected it for some strange reason to the N.-W. Among the Arabs, some, after tho example of Ptolomy, took their first meridian from the Fortunate Tales, othera from the W. Conat of Af- rica making a difference of 10°. Accord- ing to the first computation the 90° fell on Nishapdr in Khordsén, and according to the second on the town of Shabarghén about a day’s march W. of Balkh. See Reinand, Geography, I. cexliv. This difference of 10° may be constantly ob- served in comparing Abal Fazl’s longi- tude with the authorities of Abuifeds.

44, DIVISION OF THE EARTH INTO COUNTRIES.

equal number of degrees of longitude, and not more or less in proportion to its length. The latitude of cach belt varies.

There are two reasons given for the selection of seven as this number. The first is that ancient sages have verified by experience that each tract of superficial area was specially connected with one of the planets, as for instance, the first climate with Saturn. For this reason the inhabitants of that zone generally are dark-skinned, curly-haired, long-lived and indolent in action. The second climate, according to the Persians, had an affinity with Jupiter, but according to the Romans, with the Sun. The third climate, in the opinion of the former, with Mars, in that of the latter, with Mercury. The fourth, with the Sun, as the first mentioned suppose, but with Jupiter according to the second opinion. Both concur in ascrib- ing the fifth to Venus. The sixth is allotted by the first to Mercury, by the second to the Moon. The seventh, the former connect with the Moon, the latter with Mars. Tho second opinion is that in former ages a single monarch ruled the whole habitable earth. With far-seeing and prudent policy he divided it severally among his seven sons.

The word climate may be taken in two senses,! viz., the ordinary sense in which men commonly spenk of a tract of country as a climate, such as Rome, Turan, Iran and Hindustin; and the true signification already explained. In the Jatter meaning India is an aggregate of the first, second, third and fourth climates.

The beginning of the first climate is defined by general opinion to be north of the equator. Its latitude according to accurate information is 12° 42’ 2” 39’. Its longest day is 12 hours and 45 minutes, Its centre has a location according to concurrent testimony, where its longest day is 16 hours. Its latitudo is 16° 37’ 30”. Twenty large mountains and thirty considerable rivers are comprised in it, and its population are gene- rally black in colour,

The beginning of the second climate has a latitude of 27° 31’ 17” 58”. Its longest day consists of 13 hours, fifteen minutes. The longest day at its centre is 16 hours, 30 minutes. Its latitude is 24° 40’. It includes 27 mountains and 27 rivers. The colour of the inhabitants of this zone is between black and wheat colour.

The beginning of the third climate has a latitude of 27° 34’ 3” 337”, Its longest day is 16 hours, 45 minutes. Its day at the c@ntre ig of 14 hours and the latitude 30° 40’. It comprises 33 mountains and 22 rivers, and its inhabitants are generally of a wheat colour. :

_ The beginning of the fourth climate has a latitude of 33° 43’ 17’.367”,

Oe ee eg ee ae ie L Yakat gives four acceptations of this term. Cf. p. 26 et. s8q. Introduction.

.

DIVISION OF THE EARTH INTO COUNTRIES. 45

Its longest day, 14 hours, 15 minutes. At the centre the longest day is of 14 hours, 30 minntes. Lat. 36° 22’. Tt includes 25 mountains and 22 rivers; the colour of its imhabitants is between whcat colour and a fair skin, ;

The beginning of the fifth climate is in Lat. 32° 0’ 19” 5°’. Longest day, 14 hours, 45 minutes. Longest day at centre, 15 hours. Lat. 41° 15’. Colour of inhabitants fair. Has 30 mountains and 15 rivers.

The bezinning of the sixth climate is in Lat. 43° 29’ 58” 8’”. Longest day, 15 hours, 15 minutes. Longest day at centre, 15 hours, 30 minutes. Lat. 45° 21’. Has 11 mountains 40 rivers. Colour of inhabitants fair inclining to tawny and with tawny hair.

The beginning of the seventh climate is in Lat. 47° 58’ 59” 17°”. Longest day, 15 hours, 45 minutes. Longest day at centre, 16 hours. Lat. 48° 52’. Its mountains and rivers as in the sixth climate. Colour of in- habitants raddy and white. Its extreme parallel according to general opinion is in Lat. 50° 31’ 31” 54’”. The longest day 16 hours, 15 minutes.

The differences in latitude of these climates are determined by the increase of half an hour in the length of the longest day, From the last parallel to the furthest inhabited point is not included in a climate on account of the paucity of its inhabitants. Some suppose the northern- most parallel of the seventh climate to be the extreme of the habitable world. According to others, the parallel of 50° 20’ is inhabited, but they do not include it in this climate; and there is an island called Thule in Lat. 63°. From the severity of the cold the inhabitants pass their days in heated chambers. In Lat. 63° 30’ is habitable land the dwellers where- in are Scythians as recorded by Ptolemy. In Lat. 66° a tract has been discovered the inhabitants of which resemble wild animals, as mentioned by him in the Geographia. The remaining portion of the quarter of the globe is according to some, a tenantless wastc, while others regard it as simply unknown country. In Lat. 54° and a fraction, the longest day is 17 hours; in Lat. 58°, 18 hours; in Lat. 61°, 19 hours; in Lat 63°, 20 hours ; in Lat. 64° 30’, 21 hours; in Lat. 65° and a fraction, 22 hours; and in 66° 23 hours, mfd in the latitude, equal to the complement of the sun’s greatest declination from the equator, 24 hours. In Lat. 67° the day increases by one month, in Lat. 70°, 1 months; in Lat. 73° 30’, three months; in Lat. 73° 30, fSuremonths ; in Lat. 84°, five months, and in the Lat. 90° which is the extremity of the earth, the day is said to be of six months, and the other six months is night. But it is more correct to say that a year is one nycthemeron. If the day be reckoned from sunrise to sunset, the day there would be seven nycthemera longer than the nights, but if it be cal- culated from the dawn of light and the disappearance of the fixed stars,

aA 1 46 DIVISION OF THE EARTH INTO COUNTRIES.

to the occultation of light and the reappearance of the stars, the day there would be seven months and seven days and the remainder (of the year) night. Again if the day be counted: from the dawn of morning to tho evanescence of twilight, this day would be of nine months and seventeen days and the complement of the year would be thé night.!

To lend an interest to this work a table of the various climates with other details is here introduced.

Tables for the ascertainment of the Longitudes and Tatitudes of places of the inhabited quarter of the globe from the Latitude of the Equator, ac- cording to the learned, especially of places beyond the limits of the seven cli- mates to the 60th degree of Latitude.

PLAcESs BEYOND THE CLIMATES, ADJOINING THE EQuaTor.

Loner | Latt- ‘ TUDE. TUDE. ‘NAMES OF PLACES,

Notes.

The Equator ‘aes w. | 121…) .. |… | The lat. is taken at 12° N, of the trae

Equator. V. p. 66. The Island of Tirdffi …] 12] 35) 16) … Shore of the Atlantic …{ lll… |… {…

2 The following table, from Ukert,

thenes.

showing the climates of Ptolemy (Goog. z

I, 23) is taken from the Dict. of Antigq. é le] 3 | Latitude.) Passing through,

4 — ev

for purpose of comparison with Abul EB g| 2

Fazl’s account. Sie 4

eee ee IX /18| 16 15 |60 4 Middle of Palas the e Macotis. ® 19} 16 380/51 40 | Southern Britain. a X |20) 16 45/52 60 Mouths of the Rhine. sis 3 Latitude, | Passing through, 21} 17, 0 {54 380 | Mouths of the Te- @ |S nais. =! § a ’ XI 22) 17 15 [65 0 | The Brigantes in Bri- 5 ia) 2 tain. 231 17 $0 (56 =O Brittania Magna. — XII jes) 17 «46 [5708 rerio ‘in ; 13 ole o 25,18 0|68 0 yoo of Brittania %)4 16 Taprobane. XIII j26 69 «30 Middlo ‘of ditto, 312 3018 95 Binus Avalites, 27 ie 4 61 0 North of ditto, Il | 4 12 45/12 30 Adule Sinus. XIV [28 19 30 [62 «0 peace {neulac. 513 O}16 927 Meroé. 291 20 0 163 0 Thul Hi 6 13 15 (20 14 | Napata. XV [30] 23 o los 30 Uaknown Scythian {813 417 2 | Plolon t. ake 2 tolomais in Eeyp 22 0 (65 30 | Unknown Scythian 914 0/30 3 | Lower F XVI 2 23 O66 0 Tribes, 3 Vv i110 14 15/33) «#18 Lee of Bho enicia. 33| 24 0 j66° 8’ 40/7 11:14 80 36 0 | Rbo XVII |33)1 month|67° 15’ VI )12 14 be 4 = Smyrna : about, i3| 1 elkespont. 5132 ——— |69 30 VII 16 15/43 41 | Massilia xvHIRe3 — Irs 50 15 15 $0145 1 | Middleof the Euxine. 37\4—— 178 20 VIII !161 15 48 146 «51 «= [Sources of the Danube. XIX [335 —— [es 0 Mm 16 0/48 32 = | Mouth of the Borys- s96—— 99 ~ 9

PLACES BEYOND THE CLIMATES, ADJOINING THE EQUATOR. 47

Lonet- | Latr- TUDE. | TUDE.

NAMES OF PLACES. Notes. D.|M.| D.|M Island of Kumbulah (Ma-| 2]] … 8| … | Kaumr, according to Yakut Abnll’eda. ‘dagascar. gives Kunbalah. Geog. II, ILI, 127. Guyarda.

Sinas Avalites … «| 12) 30} 8] 25] The Gulf of Aden. Ghénab, gold mines,a town] 80} … | 10) … | Said by Ibn Sayd to be on the Niger, in the Sondan. gold dust exported. M. Cooley in his Negroland, p. 44 locates it near Tim- bactoo. Abul Fed. Geog. Reinaud IJ, I, 21. Sours oF THE Equator.

Kika 8) ee | 44]. | 20] 15] On its W. Ghanah: on the B. Kanem, probably Gogo. Abul F. Geog. II. I.

Guyard. Sofalnh of the Zanjcountry| 62) … 2) 80) In the Mozambique country, Se of the Zambesi. Middle of the Lake of| 68) … 4| … | According to the Resm AI Mamour, its Koura. : centre is placed in 53°$ Lon. Lat.

zero. Left bank 52° Lon. right bank 54°. Ibn Sayd makes the Egyptian Nile flow out of its N. quarter, the Nile of Madakshon from the E. and the Nile of Ghanah (Niger) from the W. On its E. and S. a mountain called Almak- sam. Reinaud, Abul F. I, I.

Jimi on tho Nile … + | 68] 16] 9} 11] The text has the min. of Lat. 401.! Ao- cording to Ibn Sayd, it is in 63° Lon. Lat. 9° 3’—capital of Kanem country and called by Makrisi, Aldjema. Rei- nand Geog. Abulf, IT. I.

Saharta vee we] 64! 6| … | A dist. of Abyssinia, Lon 54° Lat. &°,

but the Ist climate of Ibn Sayd begins

from the Equator and terminates at

16° 27’ N. Lat. See Reinaud ibid for

& dissertation on this tract.

Jarmi, capital of Abyssinia! 65) … | 6| Probably Jami, identified with Axum, formerly Axuma, Rein. ibid.

Zaghéwah vee tee | G6) a, | ore 2) The Lon. varies from 54° to 60° and tho Lat. from 1° to 11% in threo tables given by Abnif. The people of Zaghé- wah are subject to the Kanem and their country is 20 marches from Dongola,

e marked in K. Johnston S. of new Don-

gols.

Hadyah wo. a | 68). | 2]… | Lon. 57° 8’ N. Lat. 7°, a town of Abya- sinia 8S. of Vefat or Aufat, Reinand, ibid. The latter name De Sacy makes

e synon. with Jabart common to whole country of Zeylah. Chrest. Arab, I. 457,

Zailah uy ny we | ZI wwe | 8)… | Hm Saye 66° Lon, 10° 55” N. Lat. Kanan,

° wl Mumtanib and Kitéb-u’l Atwal. 61° the port is well-known.

Makdisht … aye vee | 72) ove g| .., | Now called Magadoxo on the litoral be-

low Somali land.

eee

us vt

48 PLACES BEYOND THE CLIMATES, ADJOINING THE EQUATOR. 4

i .

Lonet- Lati-

TUDE TUDE. N&MES OF PLACES. fon Notes D. {| M.{ D. | M. i

a

Aden oe see oe | 76). 7 VM

Barbera… we Pea mee (| Leo 6} 30 In the Guif of Aden.

Sinus Adulicus … {| 12] 15] 12] 80) ASovaccds xddmos. Annesley Bay. The text has confounded this with the Sinus Avalites, but Ukert’s Table of Climates shows what is intended. Adulis, the modern Zulla is placed by Ptolemy, Lon. 67. Lat.113. Cosmograph, Fol. Venet, 1486.

Shibém, capital of Hadra-| 81} 15] 32) 80)

maut. Mirbdt, between Hadra-| 82]… | 12}… | It is situate in tho litoral of El Shehr maut and Omin. and is the port of Dhnfar. Tho moun-

tains of Dhafar are famed for the in- ‘i cense produced there. Island of Serandip (Cey- | 130} … | 12) … | Atwal and Kanun, Lon. 12° Lat. 10°. Jon).

Island of Socotra, of India Caret. Atwal, Lon, 74° 30’, Lat. 13°. Kanan Lon. 66° 30’, Lat. 9°. Abalf. Lon. 74° 30’.

. Lat. 9°. Mountains of Kimerdnu | 130]… | 10]… | According to Reinand (Introd. Abulf. produces Lignum Aloes. ecclxxxvii.) this is Kamrap in Assam,

called by the Arabs Camronun and fa- mous for its aloes. (See p. 125, Vol. Il, Ain. Akb.) The Ensterns, like Ptole- my, brought the whole of India and Malncea in proximity with the Equator, Reinand, Abulf. 11, I. The ineredibility of this location with a difference of 2 deg. between Ceylon and Kimrup, made Gladwin tako thisfor Cape Comorin; but I have little doubt that the Kame- rin Mts opposite to the Is, of Fernan- do Po aro here meant.

Island of Lamri, of India| 180, … 9| … | [he Lambri of Marco Polo. (Rein. ae

prodnees the wood bak- 131). Bakkam is tho Cacsalpinia found

kam. in most parts of India of which Roxb. gives 18 kinds. It is a kind of Brazil wood.

Islund of Kalah, of India | 140 … 8} 4. | Called by Abulf. tho port of all the regions between Oman and China. Exports tin called by its name, t.e., kalgt, which Reinaud says may be from the Malay es . Walckonaer places Kn-

lah in Malacca in the province of Key- dah opposite the island of Sumatra, Introd. Abnif. 414, ye

150 … 3) … | A large island in the Groen Sea (Indian Ocean). Abulf. IT, If, 1382. Ibn Said says that the Mahdrajah are in clusters | of numerons islands, the largest of

Island of Mahar4j, of India

which is the soat of royalty, most pro- bably Borneo. The Arabs extonded India as far aa the Java Archipelago, ¥V. Reinand I, evexxxi.

ee er IE ITS

NANES OF PLACES,

THE FIRST CLIMATE. 49

Lonel- TUDE.

Lati- TUDE. Notes,

Yamakoti ee +0 Sila, in China… Nee

Gangdizh, on the shoro of the Eastern Sea.

Tram, “ adorned with lofty pillars’? (Karan 89), said to be in Yemen.

Shore of the Ocean (‘Akea- vds). Istand of Maédanah eee

Amiallta var, Aménta —… Baris& oes oes aie

Island of S@li… ae

Taland of Saw&ékin os

Taorrah oe oes

Dankulah (Dongola)… Tjizin Yemen… ae

Darkalah … oo oe

Bajah, (Beja) of the Ber. ber conntry, :

= e ae 28 5 $2… |

38 80 58| 30 49| 20 68

68

40

5] … | See Vol. II, p. 18, and Vol. III, p. 29. 8| 5) Extreme of Eastern China. Abalf. Rei-

naud II, II, p. 124; according to Rei- naud, the Corea. wee | cee | See p. 29 Vol. IIT.

eee |… | See Sale’s Koran for the story of this pa- radise of Shaddéd b. Aad. It was said to have been fashioned after the paradise of Adam, with walls of gold and columns of ruby and emerald. Ibn Khaldén brasbes the fable aside with his asaal common sense.

Tue First Cyurmare.

16 81! See p.

36 27 Perhaps Madara off Java. McCrindle, 241,

20, 14

20’ 35! According to Abulf. a considerable town

of Tgkrour, north of the Niger. Edrisi mentions it ag a village formed by some nomad. clan, ten days march north of the Lemlem country. Rein. If. L There is also a Berisa on the Red Sea below Port Mornington.

I find mention of only one Sili, a village

‘ watered by the An Nahrondin canal from the Tigris, Abulf II, 70,

17]… Jazirah signifies not only an island, but a@ peninsula or tract from which the sea has retired. Ibn Batutah II, 161, 162, describes his landing here from Jeddah on his way to Yemen.

A small town in Africa. This is all Yakdt’s information, and no other work I have seen gives even as much.

28

19. 40

14

ore 83; car et. Abn’! Akal, Lon. 64° 80’, Lat. 18°. Ibn

Sayd Lon. 70°, Lat. 14° 80’, by indaction Lon. 65° 80’, Lat. 18° 40’. A castle in the mountains dominating the coast ;

‘ residence of the princes of Yemen. Abnilf. IL. 1,121. It is called Hian Tis. ie also Niebuhr Desc. de i’Arab, p. 209,

14] 30) The proximity of location of this and the Dongola above, suggests the inference that these represent Old and New Don- gola which in the map appear to be G0 or 70 miles apart.

13]… | This must refer to the El Beja between the Shatt Meldir and Shatt Gharnis in

ST SONNE SEUNISUUIING SEI DONUT

7

AN

THE FIRST CLIMATE.

NAMES OF PLACES.

Buldarah, in the Sidan …

Island of Dahlak ..,

Marib, of Yemen…

Mahjam, of Yemen

Zabid, ditto.

Hisn Dimlaut do,

Sharjah, of Yemen

Janad, ditto

Jublah, dittu

Hisn Bad&n ditto

Najrén of Yemen

eee

Sanaa, capital of Yemen

Damér in Yemen

pee

Lonet- TUDE.

D.

68 71

78

M.

20

Lati- TUDE.

D.

7 14

Nores. M.

the province of Constantine as the Béjah or Bejah W. of Tanis occurs in the 3rdClimate. Abulfeda places this, according to the Atwal, in Lon. 55° N. Lat. 2°, and adds that it is beyond the Ist Climate in the Berbera country.

Seo p. 121, Vol. II, n. 4. This island ia well-known.

Capital of the Tobbas of Yemen, now in ruins. It is situated at the extremity of the Hadramaut chain. Here was the famous Sadd or Dyke of the Himya- rite Arabs. Niebuhr call it the principal

town of Jauf ( 39> ) V. Desor. Arab,

p. 240. For the history of the Dyke see notes to Chenery’s al Hariri, p.

A small fortified town on the frontier between Tehémah and Yemen. Ne- zhat-u’l Mushték, p. 29. It is 8 days distance from the following name. Abulf, II. I. 120.

10’ On the Tehimah of Yemen, ita princi- pal maritime port according to Albird- ni, but its port is a{place called Ghelfeca at a distance, in varying accounts, from 15 to 40 miles, Abulf. It is marked in the maps.

5 Dumluat, according to Yak6t, N. of Aden

in the Yemen hills, proverbial for its

strength, v. Abulf.

50, A small town in Yemen at a littld dis-

tance from the sea.

33. North of Hisn. Tjiz, half a day’s march. Here is a moaqne built by Maaz b. Tabal, one of the companions of Muhammad who died of the plague in Syria, A. H.

19. Abulf. 123.

30} Between Aden and Sanaé, in the moun- tains; it is H. of Tiiz und a little to the north, Abulf. 122.

40| A township in Yemen. Yakat See Nie- buhr. Desc. de PArab, p. 208.

… | Territory occupied by the Hamdan tribe,

10 marches from Sangé. Abulf. v. Nie-

buhr. p. 238. ,

eee

30 80 In the Atwél, Lon. 67, Lat. 18° 80’, in the Kanin, Lon. 66°, Lat. 14° 20’, 16

parasangs from Dhafdr.

THE FIRST CLIMATE.

51

Deen ee Een a anal

Loner- TUDE, Names.

Sirrain do.

18 15

Holi-ibn-Yakab do. Khaiwén do. Sadah

Dhafar 18)

Jurash, a town of Omén 17

on the sea coast.

84 85

19 16

Sahar in Oman Extremity of the province of Mahrah in Yemen.

Island of Rénij in the] 104

Indian Ocean.

102 102

Tanah on the Indian Ocean Mabar in India

vee wee

Kaulam in India, here pep-| 102] … per and brazil wood in

great abundafice,

16]…

Lati- TUDE.

Nores.

The min. of Lon. in the text are wrong. There are two places of this name. One on the sea-shore new Mekka, and the other one of the dependencies of Sanaa; the latter is meant. v. Nie- buhr, 238.

80| Deg. of Lat. omitted in text, 19 para- sangs, 8. of Sirrain. Abulf,

20! Formerly residence of the Himyarite kings. The ruins of an ancient palace stiJl to be seen. Abualf. If, I, 128. Niebuhr, 229 Yakat.

16 parasangs from Sanaé, a ‘flourishing town. Abulf. 128.

20. Yakut gives Lon. 78°, Lat, 15° amd says there are two of the name, one near Sanaé, a seat of the Hiniyarite kings; the other, well-known on the shore of the Arabian Sea on Et Shehr.

.. | Yakat and Abulf. place it in Yemen, abounding in palm trees, its staple ma- nufacture the dressing of leather,

20| Well-known, on the sea coast of Oman.

In the Atwal, Lon, 78° Lat. 16°, a depen- dancy of Yemen, their language ap- parently the Himyarite dialect, famous for its camels called Afahariyah, though other accounts say that the name is from a chief of a tribe, called Mahrah son of Haydén. Abulf. 138, Yaékit confirms ‘the latter derivation. He gives the Lon. 64° and Lat. 27° 30’ and says that a month’s journey separates it from Oman and Hadramaut. A ca- mel of Mahrah is mentioned in the 19 Assembly of Al Hariri.

. | Properly, Lébij. These islands are pro- bably those of the Java Archipelago, and are the same as those called Maha- réj above-mentioned. Abulf. Guyard II, II, 126, and Index to L&bij.

20| Thanah, Bombay.

eee

• 20} Coromandel. Ibn Said gives the Lon.

142°, Abulf. II, II, 121. 80] Ibn Said. Lon. 182°, Lat. 12°.

5 2, I AtwaAl, | Lon. 110°, Lat. 18° 30°.

This is Quilon

in the Travancore State; the Coilam of Marco Polo: besides pepper and brazil wood, celebrated for the ginger known as Columbine in the middle ages. ply

I. G.

52 THE FIRST CLIMATE.

DR a a a a a a f -

Lonxet- Lati- TUDE. | TUDE. Names, ’ Nores.

| Zaitin on the frontier of | 154 «. | ¥¥] 6] Tseon thoung or ‘Tsiuan-tcheou. Abulf. China. II, Il, 123. It was visited by Ibn. Ba- titel (1V, 269) called by the translators

Thsiuan-tchou-fou.

Sifdrah, China ee | 1041 55] 19) 20} There are but twe of this name in Abulf., one in Africa below Zanzibar, the other in India, a flourishing part known for its good fisheries and pearls, five mar- ches from Sindén.

Sindén in China ee | 114] 20] 19) 60) In Abulf. another reading is said to be Siuddpur, placed by one authority at 3 day’s march from Tanah on the frontier between Guzerat and Malabar. An- other account places it within its 15 pa- rasangs of Manstrah. Yakut places it between Daybul and Manstrab.

Khankdé in China « | 150]… | 14] … | fhis is on the Hang-tcheou. Abulf. II, II, Guyard, but the Lon. is 162°, ac- cording to the Kanin and Atwal.

Khanji do. ee | 162) … | 14! … | According to Abulf. both these towns

are situated on the river, as the Arnbs believed that all the rivers of China were ramifications of a single stream. If this be the Yang-tsze-kiang, the towns of Hangkow and Hwang-choo seen to answer this description, as Abuif. says that Fajah (Taichow) is to BE, of Khanjow. ‘their identification is not attempted by Guyard.

Sandabil in China, a city Cayret. Not mentioned by Abulf., but this is evi-

of the first magnitude. dently a corruption of Khan-biligh a well-known name of Pekin already mentioned in Vol. II, p. 118, see De.

Guig. Hist. des. Huns. HII, 147. Wa-

kut describes Sandabil in terms that

leave no doubt as to its identity. It is the Cambalu of Marco Polo.

ry

tJ Samandin ene see | eee | eee | oes Allaki, said by some to be see | cee | ose | coe | TRE Atwal gives the Lon. 58°, Lat. 26°, in the 2nd climate. Kanin, 55°, Lat. 27°. Ibn Sayd., Lon.

63°, Lat. 20°, 3’ ; a town in the Beja

country on the Red Seg litoral. The

mountain of Alléki contains a gold mine. It is 12 marches E. of Assoudn.

See D’ Herbelot.

Sofdlah of India, here is| ,,, … | Of this town Gildemeister says, (De Reb. found a bird that talks Indicis, p. 45). ‘Hue pértinet urbs better than a parriot. Sufira de cujus situ omnis® interiit

memoria ; ex sola nominum serie colligi potest eam Barog (Broach ?), et Tanam quarendam. ‘ The Takwimn’) Buldén gives the name only and confesses ig- norance of its situation. McCrindle says that Dr. Burgess has satisfactori- ly identified ite with Supara, 6 miles

THE FIRST CLIMATE. 53

ee RS AD AGS OS TR I FF A EI i AME ALT EROS BERLE LET A ELLE D EAD TLE CLG ACT PE LE IEEE I ET Loncl- | Lati- TUDE. peeeeee eee TUDE,

Names OF PLACES, Notes.

M. | D.

in the controversy on the situation of Ophir, being almost identical with that name when it assumes, as it often does, an initial S. becoming Sophara as in the Septuagint and Sofir the Coptic name for India.

Shahnaj cab see | oe | one ] cee | The text suggests Shanjd.

Kaa, between Oman and. see | see | cee | eee | Mentioned by Yakut as a pilgrim’s sta- Hadramaut tion on the road to Mecca after leaving

ee Akabah.

Lanjayah, a‘harge island] … | … |… |… | Lanjuyah, according to Yakut is a large near the Zanj couniry, island capital of the Zanj kingdom fre- the vine here bears quented by ships from every port, now thrice a year. deserted, the inhabitants who dre Mus-

lims having moved to another island called Tambatu. He also so re the fraitfalness of its vines. ThiWis the island of Zanzibar, which in Custs’ map (modern Languages of Africa) is mark- ed Ungujah.

Alanjah one of the…| … | … | so | os | I find no other trace of this name, but it is towns of north Africa, again referred to under the 2nd Climate has an emerald mine. as an emerald mine. The Nuzhat al

= Musht&k says that near Assouan south of the Nile, there is a mountain with an emerald mine and this gem is found alone here.

Shilé (or Shabla) see | see | eee | see | cee |] A istrict called Shilha is marked in Cust’s map of North Africa opposite the Canaties and stretches towards the Mediterranean.

Kulzum on the Red Sea…; … |… | .. | ….] The ancient Clysma. See Niebuhr

litoral, Desc. de l’Arab. p. 357. Abulf. gives the location according to the Atwal. Lon. 54° 15’ Lal. 29° 30’ Kauiin, Lon. 56° 30’ Lat. 28° 20’ and places it in the 3rd Climate.

Bakil in Yemen, here a… | … | ae | se | oe | The text has Bakbal, which is an error. tree grows from which Niebuhr (p. 225) treats of the allied they extract a poison. clans of Hashid and Bakil at some

e length and gives their romantic origin. Yikut speaks of this tree without naming it and says it is as much or more prized and guarded by the people there than the balsam by the Egyptians. It was in special request for removing crowned heads and the chief’s of the Bani Najah and their minis- ters are distinguished by having been the frequent subjects of experiment as to the deadly effects of its poison.

A village in Yemen, in the neighbourhood

of Damar. Yakit.

| 7 north of Bassein. It figured largely

Kadrah ees we

5-4, THE SECOND CLIMATE. Loner. | Lat

| TUDE. TUDE. Nores.

same river and 140 days’ journey from Sejelmésah now Tafilet. The Takriér country corresponds, according to Rei- naud@, with the region of which Tim. bnetoo is the principal town.

Yukat gives a village of this name two leagues distant from Bokhara, now in ruins. Reinand mentions an island called Alramni said to be near Ceylon which produced elephants and brazil wood and inhabited by cannibals, said by Abn Zayd to be among the Zabij islands, 4. e., Java Archipelago. Geog, Abulf. I. opvi.

A port on the coast of Oman, visited by ships from India and one of its best towns, not older than the 5th century of the Hijra, Yékat. It is marked in Niebnhr’s map of Oman p. 265. Deso. de Arab.

Mualld, in Yemen eas

Madinat-u’t-Tayyib, in Yemen.

Medinah is mentioned by Niebubr as applicd to Sanaa in Yemen, but I do not find the following epithet. Sanaa has already been given and the Mea- inah kat’ éoxhv comes in the next climate with a similar epithet some- what differently written.

wee | ose | vee | wee | Niebuhr gives the name with a diffetent

spelling = as a small coast town in ON ernneeennees

| Yemen in_the province of Yafa from whi imcense is exported. Abulf. places it between Aden and Dhafar.

Tar Seconp Ciimate.

Sas al Aksa … .. | 16, 80: 22| 0O( Sds—the remote, was #o named from | its situation at the extreme of Mauri- tania. It was a town according to D’ Herb. at the foot of Mount Atlas and was also called Taroudanj, but Abulf. makes the latter the*capita] of Sis. It would cover the extent now known as Morocco. Lamtah. Do …| 17, 30} 27… |} Or Lamthounah according to D’Herb. Called also Nawa. the large plain extending from the foot ; of Mt. Atlas to Sejelmaésah tothe B. and Takrér to the 8. Edrisi calls it a town which together with Darah and Jozoula stand of the side of the desert of Lamthounah. The desert is evidently the Sahara.

Sahar, in Yemen ove

f Takrér ov ae Name of a town, capital of a district of the same; the Lon. 17° Lat. 8° 30’. Ibn Sayd. Situated on the banks of the Niger. D’ Herbelot places it to the W. of and 2 days’ journey from Sélah on the Raémani - o seen! ee Kalhat, in Yemen soe | coe | coe | coe | coe -. |… | A small town of Hijéz. Yakdt. |

THE SECOND CLIMATE. 55

a a

Lonei- | Latt- TUDE. TUDE,

Names, Notgs,

D. | M. | D. | M.

Darah Do. vw» | 21] 6! 27) 10! See above. Ibn Sayd says it stands on the river Darah. Andaghast Do… | 25) … | 26) .. | A town in the midst of the Sahara in.

habited by Berber Moslems, the su-

macy belonging to the Sanhaja tribe.

Another account makes it a large

tract of which the capital goes by

the same name and is situated on the

mountains S. of Sejelmaésah and 40

marches distant. Reinand says the

the name is not known, but it is cited in ancient Arab accounts and was des- troyed by the Almoravides in the llth century. Major Rennel snpposes it to the modern town of Aghades, 8.-W. be of the Lake Tchad. Mr. Cooley places

? it N. E of Timbuctoo. (II. I. 175.)

Takhmaboh … | 82) 15) 25, 15] I do not find this name. The map marks

& district and town as Tagama directly

S. of Aghades.

Kas, in Upper Egypt …| 61] 80] 24] 90| The text has kurs incorrectly. The an-

cient Apollinopolis Parva, on the Nile

directly north of Karnak. It is describ- ed by Yakut as a large and flourishing town.

Ikhmim Do. …| 61{ 380) 26]… | A supposed corruption of the ancient Egyptian name Chemnis, the Panopolis ofthe Greeks. The Chem or Pan of this city was an Icthyphallic god, having been a site of Panic worship, and it was celebrated for its temple of Persens.

‘ Like other old towns in the Thebaid it declined in prosperity as Thebes rose to importance. The rivers are said by Donne (Smith’s Geog. Dict.) to be incon- siderable, but Yakut speaks of Egyp- tian temples filled with paintings and statnes, and strange writings, the building of which he asoribes to Queen Dalikah. At a small hill to the west of it, the ear applied to it will catch the sound of waters and @ marmnur like that of human voices. Yakut gives the orthography as I have written D’ Herb. has Akhmim.

Akgur Do. bs 61; 40] 24, ….] According to Y4kdt, in the Thebaid on

= the east bank of the Nile above Kus.

Preceded by the Arabic article, the

transition to Luxor is natural.

Tané Do. ow | 62) .. | 28! 80) YAkdt gives the Lon. 54° 24’ and Lat. 24°

40’. The modern Hsneh, the ancient

Latopolis which name was derived from

the fish Lato, the largest of the 52 spe-

cies that inhabit the Nile and which ap-

° pears in sculptures among the symbols

LO Ct A

56 THE SECOND CLIMATE.

NANrs. Notrs,

of the Goddess Neith, Pallas Athene,

surrounded by the oval ring of royal-

ty or divinity. It possessed a beautiful temple, bat except the joint of a gate-

way of the reign of Tothmes II, now a

door-sill, the remains belong to the

Roman or Macedonian era. Ptolemy

Euergetes is painted on the wall of the

temple followed by a tame lion, in me-

mory of his benefactions and the name of the Emperor Geta, partially erased by his brother and murderer Cara- calla, is still legible on its walls.

Smith. Art. Latop.

The ancient Antinoe, the ruins of which are still called by the Copts Enseneh. It was built by Hadrian in memory of his favourite Antinous to whom divine honours were paid as a local deity and some chariot races in comemoration of hia death and his master’s sorrow. It occupied the site of the village of Besa (Bjoca) named after the goddess and consulted as late as the age of Constantine, (Smith. Art. Antinoe.) Idrisi remarks that it supplied the magicians summoned by Pharoah to rival or defeat Moses. Reinaud. Abulf. Il. I. 157.

Uswin ae . | 66… ’ 22 30 The ancient Syene and commonly As-

souan inthe maps. I follow the ortho-

graphy of Yakut. These different pronunciations of the initial letter, gach as in Ikhmim and Akhmim, Lak- sar and Luksar (i. ¢. Alaksar or Aksar),

Ashmimand Ashmdn are caased by

the prefix to Egyptian, Greek and

4 Roman names, of the prosthetic alif

by the Arabs which sometimes carries

its ordinary pronunciation and at others reproduces that of the second vowel. Thus Ashmin gvas Shmoun, and [khmim, Khmim naturalised by the

Arabs through the addition of their

article. Reinand IT. I. 152.

Madan-i-Zamurrad. + | 64 15 21)… | See p.

oe | 28] 0.

Emerald mine, mem- | a) toned under Alanjoah, | ° Taimé, ia Syria «| 67[ 15 25 Atwal Ion. 60° Lat. 30° Kaénin 58° 80’

Lat. 26°, a small town between Syria and | Wadi al Kara on the road of pilgrims | from Syria and Damascus. According

to Yakut, here was the castle of the | famous Samnel, son of Adiya, the Jew

from whose fidetity to his word has

— OO ee

THE SECOND CLIMATES. 57 a a a a Loner- | Latt-

TUDR. TUDE. NaMes. Notes. D. | M. | D. | MM. arisen the Arabic proverb “more faith- ful than Samuel” The castle of Al Ablak between the Jauf and Jebel Shammir is celebrated in Arab story. Chenery in his notes to the 23rd Assembly of al Hariri, narrates the origin ‘of the proverb. Maadan-i-Zahab woe | cas eal) eee (fhe Gold mine). Known as a mountain a) in Yemen. Aidbab ie «| 68] 4C) 21| 401A port on the Red Sea, near Suakin. Tt is mentioned by Ibn Batontah in bie Travels, Vol. 11.160. Abulfeda calls it the rendezvous of pilgrims ngd mer- chants embarking for Jeddah. He gives the Lon. 58°, Lat. 21°. Alléki a «| 68) 40; 27| 185] Mentioned under the 1st Climate. Kusair nee «+ | 69… | 26) … | Kosseir, a port on the Red Sea opposite “ the Brothers ” on the African side. Katif, in Bahrein «| 74) 40) 22) 35) Well-known, on the Persian Grif in the | province of al Hasé. Al Yambu … ve | G4t 40) 26] … | Ibn Sayd, Lon, 64°, Lat. 26°; a small town

west of Medinah in the litoral of Hijéz commonly written Yembo.

Jubfah, in Hijdz «| 74{ 40) 22) … | Formerly ‘a large village, now in ruins, on the road to Medinah from Mecca, four stages from the latter town. Yakat. Medinah, the Pure, in| 75) 20) 25] 50] Called also Medinah the Prophetic. Hijaz.

Khaibar, in Hijdz. eee | 70} 20} 25) 20) Well-known in Hijaz.

Juddah in Hijaz. +» | 70) 10) 21) 15) Commonly called Jeddah.

Megea, the Glorious…) 70| .. 21) 40

Taf, in Hijéz. | 70} 30) 21) 20

Faru sa, «| 70) 30) 26) … | A large village between Mecca and Medi- nah, four nights journey from the latter. Yakut.

*Faid. ss, —| 78], 10) 26) … |The text is in error in the minutes of

Lat. and gives an impossible figure ; the Lat. in Atwal is 26° 60, and another authority gives 27° in Abulf. Gladwin likewise reads 27°, Faidis in Nejd and not in Hijaz. Hajar + + | 81) 10) 29] .., | In Yemémah, and its chief city. Here are the tombs of those who foll fighting against the impostor Musaylimah Abulf. Yakat says that it formerly bore the name of Yemamah. Island of Tukélibis, off/ 81) … | 2%] 19] Untraceable, the name reads like a cor- Hijaz. ruption from the Greek, and may ho either Sncabia now Shnehnah at the mouth of the Gulf of Akabah or Tima- genis the modern Mushdbea. Ptolem places this in Lon. 66°, Lat. 29° 30° 157

Sn ae

58 THE SECOND CLIMATE.

Lonet- Lati- TUDE. TUDE. NaMEs. Notes,

D. | M.} D. | M.

Island of Sili, off Hijaz. 81] … | 25] 15] See this name in the lat Climate. It- may be the ancient Sela, off Moilah or Muweilah on the Hijaz coast.

… | Presumably any part that corresponds

Lower extremity of the} 81} 30] 21

Egyptian Sea, of Hijéz with this location, Yomémah. «| 83} 6 21) 30 Y Absd, in Bahrein. «| 88) 80] 22) … | The word signifies, according to Yakut,

water absorbed by the earth and pene- trating to hard soil where it is retained. The sand is removed by the Arabs and the water taken up. It also means sand heaped over rocky ground to we the rain percolates through the sand.

The Sga of Bahrein. …{ 83) 80) 24) 15) ~

The extreme point of; 84 20) 25) 16

Bahrein.

Maadan i Zahab, «| 67} 15} 21) 6) See above p. 57.

Island of Awal. vee | 86]… | 22! …| One of the islands off Bahroin near

Katif at one day’s sail. ‘Iwo days

would be required to traverse it either

in length or breadth. It is the best of

the pear] fisheries and contains 300 vil-

Jages. Abnif. ‘This island is not

marked in the maps under this name,

but its position in Abulfeda seems to

mark it as the J. of Snmak in the

Bahrein Gulf. In Istakhri’s peculiar

geographical map, it is located as one

of 3 large islands in a sea which no

imagination can shape into the sem-

blance of any waterway of the world.

Tsland of Siléb. «1°88 380) 25] … | I do not trace this name.

Hormnuz, eee | 92] coo | 25} vue

Jiraft. -» | Q98t… | 27] 80] A flourishing town in Kirmin; 8, rertdoz-

vous for merchants from Khuridsan

and Sijistin, 4 days’ march - from

Hormuz. Abuif. I do not find it under

this name in Keith Johnstono.

Daibal. ».. | 102} 813{ 24! 20) Or Debal. For the celebrated port in

Sind, see Cunningham. <Anc. Geog. 297.

Its position is still miepaee and is like-

ly to remain so,

Tiz, a town on the Makrén| 83} … | 24

const. Birdn., in Makran. | 84! 30] 24| 5] This is placed by Ibn Haukal between Debal and Mansérah, Abyt, Reinanud If; IT. 112, Mansirah, Sind, «.! 105} … | 26| 40) The ancient Mohammedan cf&pital of Sind, see Qunningham. Anc. Geog. 271, The Tdol (temple) of Som-| 107} 10) 22/ 165) nat, India. Ahmadibéd, of Gujardt, 108} go] 23| 15 India.

s LE

THE SECOND CLIMATE. 59

Loner. | Lati- TUDE. TUDD.

Nores.

D. [a D. | M.

Nahrwalah, 4. ¢., Pattan,| 92) 5] 28| 80| See Vol. II. under Gujardt, p. 262. Gujardt.

Amarkét, birthplace 0 His Majesty.

\ Mando, Capital of Malwah, 5 :

Ujjain. ous 30| From this town was reckoned the longi- tude of the Hindus. Albirdni, India, I. 804, corrupted to Arin by the Arabs,

Bahroch, (Broach) tos .

Kambayat (Cambay) … 20

Kananj oe 35 2

Karrah (Korah) se 86] See Fol. II. under Subah of Allahabéd.

Sarat, India, ay 30

Saronj a re 22)

Ajmér e ove ees

Kartid ? ” tee tee 5

Benares 17

Kanitin, Lon. 104° Lat. 27° 15”. Atwal, Lon. 106° Lat. 27°. A town of the Brah- mans on both sides of the Ganges between Kanauj and the Ocean. Abalf. This is probably Mathurah, or Muthra.

me bse Mahirah, on both sides of the river.

Agra, India tee 43) Fathpar sy Ses 4l Gwalior ” eae 29 Ménikpér ,, se 5 Jaunpar 3 see 86 Sonérgion _,, * 3 Panduéa, in Bengal os a . : Lakhnauti, in Bengal… 80| The text has WS) for Siy, ’ Fort of Kélinjar wes = Ajodhya oes 60 Shergir . Mlaner | oe 16] The text reads Munair. I follow the 1. G. Thafdbas tee an Bhilsa ooo 31 32

Ghazipdr tee : Hajipur, Patna . The text has an impossible figure for the

degrees of Lon.

Lakhnau ae 80

Dukam ove est

Daulatdb&d cee use

Etiwah e or 5

Awadh we 55

Deogir ove ea ‘

Fathpar was 5] 65

Dalmau . 85)

Kélampir ® 6 art Perce ere eer ee

Korah * » | 10M ~=6] Qe! s-16! Soo ander Allahabad, Vol. II.

Usyit, Upper Egypt …| 51 5| 22 10 :

Biskavah, in Mauritania, 384 25) 27| 80, On the Jedi river, 3. B. of Algiers.

Najiram + | 87, 80: 26} 49 A sinall town between Siraf ond Basrah, situate on the mountains near the sea.

Yikét says he had often visiled it, Najiram is also aaid to be & quarter in

60

Names.

Najd, the region between Hijaz and [rék

Mayah ate

Khalih ? tee

Yanju, capital of China ..

Manchu, in China

Narwar, in India be Chinapattan

Haldérah ? See Bardm ? re Tibbet : tos Taktabad. a Hasabah ? ay Saldynh ove Awilah ? or Rawilah? … Tayfah ? oe Kashmir P

Kaliséh or Kaliksa ; Malibar, i.¢., Mabar .,,

Makraokin ? Nadimah ?

weet ? 23,

Batn Marrah

Kift, Upper Egypt

Armant, Do.

Island of Kais Arabicised form of Knais: in the Persian Galf ves

61

Lonet- TUDE.

51

78)…

Lati- TUDE.

M.

99] |. 39] | 25| 33 18} 5

30

21] 55 24

24. …
25. …

THE SECOND ‘CLIMATE.

Nores

Basgrah and Yakat observes that if this be so, the town must have been named from the quarter as it is not of itself of such importance that a quarter should have been named after it. Rei- naud has mistaken the sense of Yakat here. Cf. Abulf, II. II, 95.

Unintelligible variants in text. Yang-tcheou, according to Reinaud.

Chinnapattanam is marked in K. John- stone near and north of Seringapatam.

This name is marked, donbtfal in the text. Var. Naktabad.

Var. Halsar ?

Var. Salamat.

In the text hs and marked doubtful.

This name has preceded in the Ist Cli- mate and its location given. These repetitions are frequent among Eastern Geographers and Reinand notices the laxity of Edrisi in this particalar, I. ccexy,

‘Probably Yanbo, already preceded.

Properly Batn Marr. 50 «by near

Mecca.

Copt, or Koft, or Keft in K. Johnstone, a short distance below Kis, on the Nile. e

Erment, the ancient -Hermonthis. It stands slightly south-west of Luxor. In the times of the Pharoahs celebrnted for the worship of Isis, Osizis and their son Horus. Its ruins attest its former splendour The Iseion was bultt by the last Cleopatra and the sculptures ap- pear to ailade to the birth of Cwsa- rion the son of Cleopatra by Julias Cresar. v. Geog. Dict, W. Smith.

Marked as Keigh or Kenn, in K. J.

A

THE THIRD CLIMATE. 61

Lownet- Lati-

TUDE. TUDE. Names. post? neal Notes.

M

M. | D.

Island of Laérinthe Per-| 88] 80! 25] … | An island between Sirdéf and Kish, of sian Gulf considerable size bat without villages, a pearl fishery. Dict. de Ja Perse, Barbier de Meynard. This name is not now marked on the maps. Lahsé ? sible Il ede: haseesputed

Tue Tnirp Crimate.

Asafi, North Africa i 2| ..0%( 30) … | According to Ibn Sayd. Lon. 7° and called also Safi. It serves as the port to Moroceo from which it is 4 days’ journey distant, Abuilf. It is marked on the maps. .

Fés, Do. ee | 18h. |) 82)… | Rez.

Island of Jarbah, Do. …} 39 32| … | Called Jerba in Keith Johnsfdne, an island in the Gulf of Cabes (Syrtis Minor) off the Tunis Coast.

Sejelmasah eo. | 23)… | 81] 80) YakGt places it 10 days’ journey from Fez to the S. According to Reinand, stated to be the modern Tefile by Walkenaer. See his note and refer- ences II, IJ, 189. Abalf.

Maréiknah ee | 21)… | 29) … | Morocco. Tadela, Mauritania ‘wee ] 22) … | 80] … | Tadla, between Morocca and Fez. Telomein ae | 24 83| 40) Pronounced according to Reinaud Te-

lemsén, with the imdlah, and Yakit, Tenimsin. The latter says it consists of two walled towns a stone’s throw from each other, one of which, the modern, is called ‘l’ifirzit and the anci- ent, called Akadir, analogous to Fastét and Caire. Reinaud’s refer- ences are to Leo the African who has given an extended notice of this town. Notices et Extraits, 6. XII. p. 6€2. and the Abbi Barges. Journ. Asiat, Tom. 41. Mediterranean Coast, Man-{ 26] …

ritania Biskaroh «| 82)… | 80) 85) This name has already oconrred with a different location in the 2nd Climate. The name has a Variant Selah, in the e text. Téharé-i-Ulya «| 851 80) 29] … | Upper Tahart. Téhart-i-Sufla + | 36) 30) 29 Lower Tahart; Yékdt says “that these

two towns face each other and lie 5 miles apart, and he calls the Uppor the ancient, and the Lower, the modern, both being 6 stages distant from Misi- lah. The place is subject to fogs and ‘ cold and heavy dews and rain, and Y4kdt in his extended notice of its situa- tion and history gives two assuring instances of its proverbial character in this respect. Its, princes belonged to

62 THE THIRD OLIMATE.

Names. Pek ots Nores.

D. |. D. | M.

the Benu Rustam. They traced their descent directly to Bahram the freed- man of the Caliph Othman a descendant Satif, Africa a of Buhrém Gor. Mesailah we} 87) … | 382)… | Satif, south-west of Constantine. 88} 40! 380] 25] Pronounced also Emsila. In the maps Mesiln in the provineo of Biskarah, a town founded by the Fatimite Caliph Kéim billth A. H. 315 (A. D. 927) who gave it the name of Muhammadiyah. Bajah Do. Abnif. IT, I. 191. 39| 6 31] .., | Situate necording to Abnif. between Bagie and Tunis, at one march distant from Thabarca, and 6 from Kairawéin. The river Maguyla flows between it and Bone. This fixes its position as the Beja of Keith Johnstone, in the pro- Kairawén ” S06 vince of Tania. 41] «. $1] 40| This is not to be confoanded with the ancient Cyrene as Gibbon notices has Mahdiyah ” see been done by one eminent geographer. 82) … $2| 30] Founded by the Mahdi Ubayditiah tho founder of the Fatimite ‘Dynasty, (v. Suyutis Hist. of the Catipha, Jarrott, p. 8 et. seq). It is situate on the coast Tunis below Monaster. Lower extremity of the 42} 30) gg} 81 Egyptian Sea, Egypt 44)… | 30} 22

Middle of Syria a : Island of Rhodes «| 44 35) 83] 88 Staah Africa …| 44, 30! 36 … 44} 40) 32) 80} On the Gulf of Hammamet, north-wost Atrf&bulus. p50 ase of Monaster. Tazar eee | AG 82) 30) Tripoli. Zawilah » «| 46} 80! 29] … | Province of Tunis on the Shatt Kabire

49| 40| 80) … | In the Fozzan. This was the name also

of a quarter in the city of Mahdiyah . and of Cairo. Abulf. v. De Sacy. Kasr i-Ahmad ag va Chrest. Arab. I. 495.

51{ 25; 83) 80) On the border of the Barkah country according to Ibn Sayd, on the east of the province of African proper. It is but a small village servigg as a store for goods of Arab merchants. The desert intervenes between this and

Barkah 5c al Barkah, Abnif. Tulmaithe «| 62! 45] 32]…

44)… 38] 10/ Situate at the foot of the m@untains of

Cyrenaica on the sea-shore* The

ancient Ptolomais.

67| … | 81)… | Sort in Keith J. is a district on the li-

toral of the Gulf of Sidra, the Syrtia

S Major: Abnolf. quoting Ibn Sayd makes it atown formerly one of the capital cities of the country but destroyed by

i A ee

Madinah-i-Sart ae

THE THIRD CLIMATE. 63

the Arabs. The Fatimite Caliph Al Mnizz constructed reservoirs in the desert for use on his journeys from Sort and Fayyim.

Akabah, northern extre-| 89) … | 80) …

mity of Egypt.

Bahnasa +. | 63] $2{ 28] 35! This village stands on part of the sito of the anoient Oxyryachus which received its name from a fish.of the sturgeon spocios (accipenser sturio Linn.) which was an object of religious worship. There remain some broken columns of the ancient city and a single Corinthi- ancolumu without leaves or volutes, partly buried in the sand, probably of the age of Diocletian. It became the site of an episcopal see, Geog. Dict.

Smith. Iskandariyah «| 62) 54) 30) &8| Alexandria, Rashid –. | 62} 20} 31) … | Rosetta. Misr a. | 63] … | 80} 20] Cairo. Dimyét … | 68 50} 31] 25] Damietta. __ Fayyim «. | 68} 50} 29] … | The caval which connects, or connected

it with the Nilo, is said by Abnif. to have been constructed by the patriarch Joseph, to whom a grent .number of the ancient monuments have been asoribed. This tradition does not ap- pear, according to Reinaad, to date till a little preceding the commencoment of onr ora.

Kalzam .. | 66] Bu! 29! 80) Niebuhr places the ruins of the ancient

. Katona & little to the north of Suez. v. Tab, XXIV, Dosep. de l’Arab.

° Tinnis, one of the Egyptian) 64) 30) 30| 40) An island in Lake Tinnis (Lake Men- isles zileh) a little south of Port Said. Ghazzeh, frontier of Pales- | 66 $2] … | Gaza. ti Aish, | 66) 26} 865] The text isin orror in the namo which should be Urty®- Tt is on the litoral between Palestine and Egypt and marked by Ibn Khalddn, (Proleg. 110) as on the extrome frontier of Egypt. Edit. Quatremére. Bait’al Mukaddas +. | 66} 30! 982] 50] Jerusalem. Ramlah ve | 66) 50) 82) 10 ‘Kaisariyah 66} 15] 32) 30; Cmsarea,

ot.

Ammén, a dependecy of | 66] 20} 81! 8| Rabbath Ammon, the ancient capital of

Balka the Ammonites (Deut. iii 11.}. Ié was

.| besieged by Joab and taken by David (2 Sam. xi. 1. xii. 26-31). Its de. struction denonnced by Jeremiah (xlix, 8. Ezech. xxv. 5). 1t wag

nN od

nn ee as

Names. Askalin Palestine oa Yafa. Palestine Ses Karak bee

Tnabariyah of the Jordan Baisan wes

Akké, coast of Syria Sur, coast of Damuscas .., Hajar

Said&, litoral of Damas- cus

Balbak, of Damascus "

Damascus, capital of Syria

Hit, Syria, on the En. phrates

Hillah, in Trdk te

Kdafah, on a branch of the Euphrates

66 66 66

50

15

68} …

79

20’ 35 30

55!

“80

30

32 32 3]

32 32

31

THE THIRD CLIMATE.

Notes.

restored by Ptolemy Philadelphus, who gave it the name of Philadelphia. Geog. Dict. W. Smith.

15. Ascalon. :

16. Jaffa.

30} Kerak-Moab is the district corresponding tothe country of Moab. Thechieftown of the same name is marked in Keith Johnaton. .

5| Tiberias.

50; Beth san, or Scythopolis, in the LKX. Judges i. 27 Batdodv, # Cor: Sxvddv- wérxs. It was a city of the Manas- sites, locally situated in the tribe of Issachar. In the time of Sanl it was oceupied by the Philistines who after the battle of Gilboa hung the bodies of Saul and his sons to its walls. Placed by Josephus at the S. extremity of Gallilee, who calls it chief city of the Decapolis. Ptolemy reckons it one of the cities of Coclesyria. Dict. Smith. Coclesyria is now called E) Biksa or in- correctly Bukaa, low-lying plains, The name of Cole or Hollow Syria is ex- plained by Avienus.

Heec Cele est Graio sub nomine: namgue duobus

Ut conclusa jugis vallis vice, multa cavatar.

Ab Zephyro Casius mong imminot: axe diei

Consurgentis item Libanus premit arduus arva. Desc. Orbis terra.

20’ Acre. -

4. Tyre.

30, This is probably Hajar Shughlan, a for- tress belonging to the Knights Templars, in the mountain of Lokkam, near Anti- och, overlooking the lake of Yaghra. Vakat.

Sidon.

50

30

15 Not in Syria (Shim) as Abul Fazl writes, but in Arabian Irak.

82| There are several of the nam&; the Hil. lah of Bani Kailah, between Wasit and Basrah ; the Hillah of Dabais b. Afif w} Asadi, between Basrah and Ahwaz, and the Hillah of Bani’! Marik near Mauasil. The Hillah of the text is on or near the rnins of Babylon.

80, The ruins of this once famous town alone are left ry

THE THIRD CLIMATE. 65

same name which leads to Basreh, four miles in length.

Ahwaz, in Khizistin ..,| 88] -.. 8l) 3] On the river Kérun.

Loner. | Lati- TUDE. TUDE. Names, Norrs, - D. | M. | D. | M. Anbir, Jrak we | 79) sol 33) 5 Ukbara do. … | 79} 30; 33] 30) On the Tigris, ten parasangs from Bagh- dad. Baradin, on the Tigris …| 79] 60} 33] 30) In the map, near a small afflnent of the Tigris. The text has Bardan, I follow the orthography of Yakdt. Baghdad «| 80) … | 83) 25 Madiin-i-Kisra, opposite | 80} 20; 33}… |The ancient Ctesiphon, described by stood the palace of the ‘’s Strabo, as the winter residence of the Khusraus Parthian kings, and by Tacitus “ sedes imperii.” See its description in XX1V Chap. Decline and Fall. Hajor, of Hijdz 80| 30) 28} 80| This name occurs in the 2nd Climate with a different location. Yakut men- tions three others, but of no signi- ficance. Babil, Trak -»| 80) 55; 82] 15} Babylon. Nuaminiyah do. «| 81} 20) 33] … | Between Baghdad and Wisit. Itis the chief town of the Upper Zab. Abuif. Kasr Ibn i Hubayrah do. | 80, 30) 32) 45] One letter ( ¢) is omitted in the text of the minutes of latitude. This town is on the Euphrates having Karbala short distance directly to the west on the desert. It takes its name from Yazid-b-Omar-b. Hubairah, governor of Jrak, in the time of Marwdn al Himdr Abuilf. . Jarjariyd, Irak «| 80} 80) 33) 3) Ree the Tigris between Baghdad and asit. Famu’s Silh do. ao BOL AB) 82] “40 f° omitted in min of Lou. On the W. of the Tigris, 7 parasangs from Wasit. Tt was here that the espousals of the Caliph Mamin with Burdén took place. JalGlé do. .» | 81) 10! 33) 80) Deg. of Lat. wrongly printed in text. It was here that Yezdajird was defeated . in 16. A, H. and fied to Rai. It is both a town and river according to Yakit, the river being named from the multi- tude o>) of the slain, The Jnalulé is probably the present Dydlah. See my Transl. Hist. of the Caliphs p. 135, and 231 for the note above. Wiasit do. o | St} 80, 32] 25 Hulwain flo. -. | 82] 5d) SH… Basrah do. | 84]… | 33) .. Ubullah — do. | 84]… | 30! 15} At the mouth of the Tigris canal of the Tustar do. .. | 84{ 30) 31) 80] Now Shuster. Arjan do. … | 84] 30} 30). 32) Or arabicised Arrajdn, 60 parasangs ‘ from Sak u’l Ahwaz and 60 from Shiraz |

66 THE THIRD CLIMATE.

Lonet- Lati- TUDE. TUDE.

NAMES, Notes.

M.

and one day’s march from the sea. Meynard. Dict. de la Perse. On the frontier of Fars on the Khizistén side. Abuif. Askar Mukram in Khizis-| 84] 35] 381) 15] Eight parasangs from Tustar. It was ” tan ee called after Mukram-b-ul Maz des- patched by Hajjaj-b. Yusaf against Khuzad-b. Baés.; his stay in this town gave it the name of the Camp of Muokram. Abulf.-Yakat. . Island of Sukutra, off} 84] 30] 83) … | At p. 48, this is placed as a dependency Kbuzistén of India without mention of Lon. or Lat. Hisn i Mahdi, in Khizistén | 85) 15] 30] 15) According to Yaékit and Ibn Hankal, e the waters of Tustar, Daurak and Ah- waz unite near the fort and form a large river that disembogues in the sea. Azizi makes it 11 parasangs from this to Ubaila. Siniz, Persian gulf «| 84) 45*} 32) … | The5in min of Lon. omitted in text :—A small town almost in raing in the Ahwéaz, district ; from this to Jannébah the road runs along the sea coast. Abnif. Abbadén do. –» | 106] 30] 30} … | At the mouth of the Tigris. Rém Harmuz, in Khizis-| 85) 45") 31] … | 5. Omitted in text. The townis mark-

tain ed in Keith Johnston. Isfahan, Persia «. | 86] 40) 22) 25 Kaézrin do. «| 87| 30) 29) 55 Shiashtar do. … | 86} 20! 21] 80) This is the same as Tustar which is the

Arabic form of the name (Yakit). Abul

Fazl has given it a different Lon.

and Lat. to Tustar above; it is pro-

bably a copyist’s interpolation.

Shapir do, «| 87) 55) 80} … | The ruins of thie town above Kisht and

near Kazrin are marked in K.J. The- word is Sabiirin Yakat, a corruption he says of Shébpair. It is also a district and Sabar was one, but not the Jargest, of its towns. It was built by one of the monarchs of this name of which there were three, the captor pf Valerian, (A. D. 23:0) Sapor Ii (310.) Sapor IIE (385.)

Umén do .. | 67| 20] 22)… | No such name occurs in Faristién and

indeed no other than the east const of

the Arabian Peninsula 6f which ac-

cording to Yakdt the Long. is 34° 30’,

Lat. 19° 45’.

Naubandajén «| 107] 55] 80; 10] According to Yékét a town of impor-

tance in the district of Sabur, and said

by ibn Fakih to beits chief town. He distinguishes it from the town Shébpir

or Sabur, but Guyard (II. 1J. 95. n.)

makes them the snme. Yakut states

RT,

TUE THIRD CLIMATE.

62

ac en NE naa

Names.

Lonet- Latt- TUDE. TUDE.

Notes. M.| D. | M. p. |

NT I

Jannébah known a8 Gan-

dabah

Abarkah in Fars 7 Firozibéd ” oe Shiviz +8 ee Siraf See Shabinkéfrah ,, 5 Tstakhr ” des Yezd a

Hisn Ibn Umarah in Férs

Darabjird in Firs eee

Bafa, Kirmén | tee

Sirjin eos e

Kirmin toe

Tabas Kilaki, Khurésfn…

Zarand of Kirmgy aoe

Bardsir ,, ® es ANavI8 ” oes Bam bey

Tabas Masinan, Khurasag

28!

29

30)-

83

30

80

30 28)

83

that Naubanjin was a fort in the city Naubandajan. The former name is in Keith J., the latter not.

In K, J. Gunawa, on the Persian Gulf.

23| This name does not occur in any work T have cousulted. e+ | Persepolis.

20| According to Abulf doubtful whether in Fars, or Kirmadn; now in ruinse The route from Siraf, along the sea coast is across wild mountains and deserts. Tn ancient days said to have been held by a chiof alluded to in the Koran Ch. XVII. “and there was 8a king behind them who took every sound ship by force (Sale).” There have been a@ great many kings who have done the same and not all of ancient times,

15/This name is derived from Dardb=Darius and jird arabicised form of Persian Gird circuit, enolosure, town. ,Darab is the name of the town in K. J.

.. | Marked in K. J.: lead mines in its vici- nity.

20} The text has omitied the final w which ocenrs in Abulf. and Ibn Yaukal. Ibn Haukal calls it the largest city of Kirman.

5, A town in the desert between Naisabur, +. | Isfahan and Kirmdn. It is divided in two, one being called T. Kilaki and the other T. Masinin, bat thoy form properly bat one town. A colebrated

silk of this name is exported. Abulf. 40] According to Ibn Haukal, it exports a a stuff for linings known Bitdnah ; equiv. Pers. ‘asfar.” See Dozy. Suppl. Dict.

Arab, under lh,

… | In Abalf. Bardasir. Bardashir and Ka- washir, between Sirjin and the desert, two marches from Sirjin, the namo a contraction, if is said, of Ardeshir (Babegan) Seo. Dict. dela Pers. 9V.

… | Marked in K. J. os 8u; One of the principal towns and has three large mosques. Marked in K. J,

… | See above under Tabas Kilnki.

68

THE THIRD CLIMATE.

Notes,

Khiawash, desert of Sistan

Zaranj, ancient town of Sistan

Kij, of Mekrén oes Jéik 4, - aes Khéltén Mekrén ie Ram eee

Bust in the Garmsir of Kandahar, on the Hel- mand

Takitabad P es

Rukhkhaj of Bistén

-Barwin, Sistén ses

Maimand, originally of Zabulistén, now of Kan- dahar

Ghaznah, Zabulistan —,,,

Ribit Amir Sen

Kandahar

Nahlwarah, India

94, 40! 33

97

99

99. …

99 99

1090

101

ee

5?

163. …

82

23

30)…

28 33

33

28

… | Pronounced by the inhabitants khdsh.

A town in Sijistén on the left of a traveller going towards Tustar (Bost?) at one day’s march from Sijistin, watered by stream and canals and well wooded with palm trees. Y4Akit. This direction is obscure and the town is not in the maps. The Sijistin above-mentioned must be Zaranj.

30] Capital of Sijistin and called also by its name. Yikib-b-Leith as Saffar, founder of the Saffaride dynasty had a castle here. Rim Shoahristan on the Helmand, was the capital before Zaranj bat the river having changed its course and abandoned the town,

’ the inhabitants left it and built Zaranj ata distance of 3farsakh. See these names in the Dict.dela Pers. or in Yakut.

30] Principal town of Mekrin and 5 days’ march from Tiz its chief port. Dict. de la Pers.

An orror probably for Jalikin, but tho latter is placed by Yakat in Sijistév,and by some authorities in the territory of Bast. There is no Jalik traceable

30| Not traceable.

35. his name so occurs in Abnulf. and cor- rected by Reinaud to Zamm. The latter is placed by Ibn Haukal on the borders of Khur&sin, but reckoned as belonging to Mawarannahar. Yakit makes ita small town on the road to the Oxus lend- ing from Tirmaz and Amol. De Slane makes Zemm to mean a cluster of Kard villages. Ibn Khaldin I, 133 n.

.. | The stages from Sijistin to Bast or Bost

are given by Ibn Hankal (Onseley, p. 209.)

50] In Abulf. Arrukhkhaj with the Arabic Art. the ancient. Arachgsia, comprehen- ding the present provinces N. BE of Baluchistan, Catch, Gandava, Kandahar, Sewistan and the S. W. of Kébuiistan v. Dict. Geog. Smith.

15] Abulf. and Yskdit have Carwdn. two marches from Bust.

20| This name is written df{tmand in Abuif. and Yakdt. The min. of Lat. are omitted or misprinted in the text.

It is

‘ Not tracoable.

30| See p. 59 when this is written as Nahr-

THE THIRD CLIMATE.

Lonar- TUDE.

Lati- TUDE.

69

Maltin India -.- Lahiwar (Lahor) ,, - Dahli ( Delhi) ” Tanesar Eom Tisee Shahibid ote Sambal » ot Amroha ere Panipat ” Baran sh is Bighphat : Kol ee Himalya Mons one K6t Kror ? one Sidlk de gee 883 Saltankot » oe Shelam oes Rhotas en Fort of Bandnah Pow. Parashdwar (Peshawar) ” Farmal oes Sunnim oe Sirhind oe Ripar no Michbiwéreh ee Péod : Ludhianah ” Snultinpdr

Kalanir, where the acces: sion of His Majesty

took place Désuhah eo Parsaror, near Dera Ghazi Khén Amnébid ° oss 3 Gee . e Sddharah Ss: bake Defhnah ? $57 caus Bhérab 99 ee Khushab 55 eae Hazarah aia Chandniwat

Atak, Benares, founded by His Majesty.

walah but with a different location. The name was originally Anhilpir (v. Vol. X. p. 262) and Anc. Geog. India, p. 320.

oa

2 This must be the Sambataka of Ptolemy,

in Rohilkand. See McCrindle. Ptol. p. 183. Vol. IT. p. 2° 6. °

Vol. IL. p. 286,

Kabul being presumably connted in Tin- dustan. See Vol. II. p. 399.

In the I. G. occars Sunam town in Karm- ghar tahkstl of Patiala State.

So spelt in every MS.

See Vol. II. p. 310. Stibah of Lahor for this and following name.

v. Vol. II. p. 295.

See Vol. I. and Emperor Akbar. Graf Noer. p. 70 and Vol. LH. p. 319.

v. Vol. IT. p. 316. Vol. II. p. 110-320.

In the Sarkdr of the Rechnaa Dofd. II. 319 where the name should be Amni not Uminabad. The text has

Ws¥ for \ tg Vol. I. p. 321,

Var. Dalfiah. Difhah. Vol. II. p. 322,

Do. 823. Do. 323. Do. 320

wee ee Ned

70

Names.

Hardwir, Mangléur and the fort of Galer ? anci. ent cities

Charthéwal

Kairanah

Shinjhanah

Baghrah, near Muzaffar- na

oo

Chahat ie: “ees Bangash eae Doralah_ Peery Nahtaur Age < o08 Kethal , es Rohtak ix. ie Shajhar 3 Mahim ve Haibatpir sss

Pirbi, in the Panjab

Khizrabid ae Sadhirah by has Safidan 1

J ind ” aoe Karnal a9 as Hinsi Higér ais dave Rahadranpoér ‘ae Deoband ”

Ambalah spas Bhimah ”

Hatnéwar Skinpat; here the refer-

ence to India ceases Sanjar ?

Aghmét, extreme W. of Mauritania

THE THIRD CLIMATE.

Lonet- Latt- TUDE. TUDE. M.| D. | M.j} D.

Norss.

93

15

eee

eee

eee

oes

D Do. 286., Do. 291, where it is spelt. Baghré. Vol. IJ. p. 296. I find no other name but the Tumén of

Bangash which is scarcely applicable here. Vol. II. p. 296.

Do. 291. Do. 296. Do. 287. Vol. II. p. 286. Do. 248. Do. 318.

So in the text, but Gladwin omits this name and to Haibat adds Pati which is its proper designation. I believe the MS. of the text corrupt here and for Parbi should be rend Pati and prefixed to the name above it The form of the entry adds to the suspicion that it is an error.

The text is in error in the degree of Lon. v. Vol. II. 296.

Do. Do. Do. 287, where it is written Safi- din. ” Do. pp. 294-295. Do. 291, where it is written . Bhinah, Do. 104.

I do not find this name ? _,

Var. Janhah. Theonly ae to this name in Abualf. is the ancient San- garius, the present _ which flows into the Biack sea, BE. o@ Constanti- pople, called also the river of Angora. from its passing near that town; 54° Lon. and 41°. Lat. in the Resm wl Mamir. Abnif. IJ. 64.

Lon. 11° 80’ Lat. 28° 50’ N of the Daren Mis. and the capital of the country before Morocco and S. E. of it. Abulf, iI, 1. 188. Between it and Morocco

a

THE THIRD CLIMATE. 71

ate eemeneees DEERE Beene

Names.

Hadiyén ? Rah

Riydsah ?

.Manfalét, Upper Egypt ae “62

Fastit - Abu Tij ”

Ushmanaia 45

Munyah ‘

Kabis, Africa

Sasah, const of Africa

Safikus Do.

Lati- TUDE. .

Lonet- TUDE. Notes.

M.| D. | M.] D.

the distance was three fasahk, and 14 marches thence into Miknessa, 182, Var, Tadela. already mentioned. Var. Rakah; var. Darah mentioned po.

“40| Ou the Nile a little N. of Usyat.

… | On the W. bank of the Nile in the Usydit territory, abounding in the poppy- plant, 24 miles from Usytit and Ikh- mim Abuilf. Reinaud considered the name pronounced by the Arabs Aba Tig. to be probably a corraption of Anod4«n, pointing to a Greek origin.

The 4in min. of Lat. omitted in text; marked Eshmoom in K. J. It is in the dual form of an Arabic noun, meaning the two Ushmins, so named, Reinand supposes, from its greater importance, there being other towns similarly de- signated. It was the ancient Hermo- polis Magna and there are still some striking remains of its former magni- ficence. The principal deities worship- ped were Typhén and Thoth. The former represented by a hippopotamus on which sat a hawk fighting with & serpent. Thoth, the Greek Hermes, the Ibis-headed god, was with his accom- panying emblem the Ibis and Cyno- cephalus or ape, the most conspicuons among the sculptures on the great portico of the temple. This portico was a work of Pharaonic times. v. Geog. Dict. Smith.

45| Min. of Lat. in text 6’ for 45’, called also Manyat uw’! Kbusaib. but in K. J. as Miniet Ebn Khaseeb. Yokiit however carefully points its orthography.

Cabes in the Galf of that name. In Ptolemy Taxdzy or Kdan in the Regio Syrtica. Pliny describes the sur- rounding country as very fertile but the harbour bad. In its neighbour- hood were warm mineral springs the Aque Tacapitane, now FE] Hammat el Khabs v. Geog. Dict. Smith.

40| N. of Monaster, and direct 8. of Tunis.

It was from here that the Moslem fleet set sail for the expedition against Sicily, Abulf. 11. 199.

50| 40’ Lon. omitted in text. In K. J. Sfékus,

and pronounced Sfaka. Rein, II. 200.

wee eee

eee

coe |, BS]…

ote

63 28

42 82

tes

oe | 44 82

45 8}

72 THE THIRD CLIMATE. eS

Lonet- Lati-

TUDE. TUDE. Names. Notes. M.} D.| M.| D

Ghadamis, in the Jarid} 49] 10] 29} 10| Or Ghudimis, on the borders of the Tri- country poli and Algerian territory to the extreme south. Yakat describes the process of tanning here as incompara- ble, skins becoming as soft as silk. The Beled el Jarid in K. J is marked considerably above Ghudamis W. of the Shott Kabir.

Na&balus, of Jordan ees 67; 30} 32) 10] Ndbulns in Samaria, the ancient Nea- polis supposed to be identical with Sichem of the Old Test. Traditions of Jacob’s well and Joseph’s tomb still survive and its connection with the adjacent sacred Mount of Gerizim and

‘ identification as the city of Samaria where Philip preached, distinguish its remarkable history. See Smith’s Geog. Dict.

Salt, of Jordan … | 63] 10) 32! 3/Text has Lon. 68° for 63°. Es Salt or Ramoth Gilead, but in the Geog. Dict. the site is snid to be uncertain. Ku- sebias describes it as 15 miles W. of Philadelphia. Ibid.

Azraat, (the two Azras) of |… | … |… | … | The name is incorrectly spelt and shoald

Damascas be sf ye. There are two villages of

the name in the Ghitah of Damascus, both marked in K. J.

Sarkbad Do. e. | 70} 20) 82] 15) A fortified town and tract near the Hauraén country, according to Yakut. In K. J. Sulkhad or Salcah.

Hal? cos | cee | cee | coe | ee | A note in the text considers this an error for Hillah already mentioned.

Kadisiyyah, in Irak «| 79| 25) 21) 45) Mispriot, in min. of Lat. of 5 for 45’, Cadesia with Hirah and Khawarnak, says Abnuif., are all three on the borders of the desert on the W. and Jrak on the E. This famous field determined the fate of Persia under the Caliphate of Omar.

Sarsar 3 «| 79} 55) 383) 20| Text; misprint of deg. of Lon. Between Baghdad and Kiifab and at 3 parasangs from Baghdad. There are two, an

; Upper anda Lower. Abuif. 1]. 11.75.

Hirah f .. | 79) 27} 31) 30) The text has Khfrah for Hirah and a

‘ misprint of the min. of Lon. The mis- . prints or errors in Lat. ind Lon., the deg and min. of which are expressed in the notation of Arabic letters, are two frequent for farther notice. They are as often inexact as correct. Hirah is one parasang from (III) Kifah It wag the residence of the kingsof Hirth of which one Mundhir-b. Imri’] Kais became a Christian and adorned his

Basa of Fars a8 Dyird Ghaznah 6

Tib, in Khizistin int

Kurkdb in Ahwaz, said b some to be in Jrdék

Jubbi, Khizistin at

Khansé, China

Salé, Mauritania oe Samairam, near Isfahan…

Bam bd set Baloin ? oa

Balzam (cy)

lo

89} 16| 29] … w

éal | 82

84] 43) 33)

84. 3d} 30
85. 45] 23 14! Jol 33

THE THIRD CLIMATE. 73

ied) Lee

30] Lon. illegible in texé.

“ Nores.

capital with fine churches. Abnulf. bat Canssin de Perceval (Essai. sur I’ Hist. Arab.) doubts his Christianity, his persecution and protection of his Christian subjects alternating according tu his caprice, 11. 79.

In Arabic Fasé and now so-called. The relative noun in Arabio is Fasdwi, in Persian Basasiri which cognomen wag given to Abn’) Hérith Arslin the Turk whose master was of Basé. Abilf. The short lived snccess of Al Basfsiri who captured Baghdad for the Fatimite Caliph, Al Mustansir, from Al Kdim biamrillihi, is briefly recounted by Weil Gesch. der. Cal. pp. 92, 102: see also my Hist. of the Caliphs, p. 487, and his life in Ibn Khall.

In Abunif. this is in the 4th Climaie, a small town at the foot of Mt. Maridin in Mesopotania. ‘here is another of the name in the mountains of Tabaris- tin. Abuif.

This has already been mentioned.

Between Wasit and Ahwfz. Abulf.

Seven parasangs: between Kurkib and Tib and ten between it and Sis. Abuif.

50! Jobba iin Abailf. and Jubbah in Yakut.

There are several of this name given by Yakut; a cluster of villages between Damascus and Baalbak: a village in Nahrwén; a village in the Khurisin dist. and also a place in Egypt the birth-place or home of the grammarian Sibawaih. Jubbi is the relative adjeo- tive and not the name,

This in Abulf, is Khankou or properly Khénfou, a port of China on the river. According to Guysrd,» Khansa is Hang-tcheon-fou, the Kinsay of Marco polo. I]. II, 122. visited by Ibn Batitah IJ. 284,

80| Now Salee or Sla, in K. J. on the W.

coast.

.. [In Yékat Samajtim, a town half-way

between Isfahiu and Shiriz.

Already preceded.

The text suggests (pr) Palermo, which

seems plausible as the simple omission of the dot over tho ) would effect the change, but the name is in strange

company and Abuifeda places it in the 4th Climate.

a

74 THE THIRD CLIMATE.

Norss.

Baidé, Fare .- | 83] 16} 80| .., | According to Yékit a well-known city called Dar Saféd the white oity, Arabio- ised into Baida, the white, on account of its citadel which was seen at a long distance ; Istakhri describes it, as the largest town of the distriot of Istakhar and called the white. Its Persian name was Nastik; it was nearly as large as Istakbar and was 8 farsakhs from Shiréz.

Jausén or Idsain Pose | ove | vee | coe | vee

Kinah ? Poem eerie ere Deere (ee

Jor, in Fars coe | coe | soe | coe | ove | Lon. 78° 80’. Lat. 31° according to Yakut who places it at 20 farsakh from Shiriz,

‘ pronounced by the Persians Gor. It is said that Malik Addu’d Danlah-b. Buwaih used to make frequent excur- sions of pleasure to it and the people used to say that he had gone to ‘Gor’ i. ¢., the grave. The ominous sound in- duced him tochange the name to Firozé béd. The original city is ascribed to Ardeshir-b.-Babak, who gave it the nawe of Ardeshir Khurrah. Yékit’s notice of this town is interesting.

Damindén, in Kirmén «| |. |. |… | 2 | The name of a large town in Kirmén

with mines of iron, copper, gold, silver,

. sal ammoniac and tatty in a mountain in the vicinity. ‘This mountain is called

Dambiawand, lofty and voleanic. It con-

tains a hage cave in which is heard the

sound of rushing waters. When “he

vaponronus smoke is thick around its

sides, the people of the town assem-

’ ble to obtain the sal ammoniac which is deposited, of which } is taken by the

Sultan and the rest divided amongat

the people pro rata Yakit from Ibn 0’)

Fakih. This mast not be confounded

with the mountain of Dumbiwand

on the frontiers of Rayy of which

marvellous legends are recorded by

Yakat. * Babkab ses | cee foes | eee f ee | I do not trace this name. Salabark: Sao Patel, vce. || eee [Meas 4in a’el, Shame, Egypt ..|… | .. |… |. | Lon. in Abulf. varying according to

different authors betweau 63°, 80’ and 61°, 50’ and Lat. between 29°, 80’ and 80°, 20’ ; said to be the residence of Pha- roah, of which some ruins still remain, among them the needle of Pharoah, at helf a day’s journey from Cairo. Abuif. II. 167. This is the famoua Heliopolis, with the semitic names of Beth Shemesh and On (Gen. xi. 45.

THE THIRD CLIMATE. 95

Loner. | Lats- i tube. | TUDE. Names. ‘

D. x, D.

’ Notes,

M.

Ezech.’ xxx. 17.) which may dispense with a description. The two needles of Pharoah were seen and described by Abdu’l Latif in his monograph on Egypt. Edit. Joseph White, p. 60.

Said by Yakut to have been a small village near Aleppo with which a gross legend is connected but the position is obscure.

Ain Sarah

‘ww

Kadwil p

Kafartéh 2x Atwal, Long. 61°, 80’ Lat. 34°, 45’, placed by Abnalf. in the 4th Climate. Yakit locates it in the desert between Aleppo and Marrah; there are no walls and it is dependent on rain water. e

Kafartdéthé ee Atwal Lon. 66°, 35’, Lat. 37°, in the 4th Olimate in the Diyér Rabigh. Yakut places it at 5 farsakh from Dara in Mesopotamia. Also the name of a

é village in Palestine. Najdah ? Selden ee Qwarah P oh Wee Wetee

Marbit on eet Mentioned by Yakdt as one of the vil- lages of Alexandria without further particulars.

Daha ? gos: | ees | See … | The text auggests Dahna.

Daskarah, in Jrak oe] 81) 8 40| In the environs of Baghdad or according

to another account, & jarge village in ita dependency on the road to Kharé- san and called Darkarat u’l Malik; containa marvellous ancient ruins. Abulf. Yakut gives two of the name, one a large village W. of Baghdad, and another on the road to Khuraaén near Shahrébad and called Darkarat u’l Malik, on account of the frequent resi- dence there of Harmuz son of Sapor, son of Ardeshir, aon of Bébek. Two others are also mentioned by Yakut one, op- posite Jabbul, between Naamaniyab and Wasit and a fourth in Khuzistén.

«.{ 63} 20} 80! 20) Momphis. The text bas Minf. Yakdt points the word Manf which is doubt- less correct, the Noph of the Old Testa- ment. Its antiqnity is unqneationable, bat Yakat’s authority, an undistin- guished Abdn’r Rahman, makes it the first city peopled after the flood. Its first settlers were Baisar, son of Ham, son of Noah with his family 80 in number, and their colony called Mafah from a Coptic word signifying 80, and turned by the Arabs into Manf.

Man f, Egy pt

Nasarah, Palestine oes Maghrérah or Maghra- wah ?

Tanjah, a dependency of Fez, on the Atlantic

Kasr i Abdu’l Karim, Mauritania

Kartubah, capital of Anda- lusia

Ishbiliyyah, Andalusia …

Sabtab, Mauritania tes

Jazirat al Khadhré, (the Green Isle) Andalusia

Mérida, Spain … Talaitalah Do. … Gharnétah ree)

… | Nazareth.

THE FOURTH CLIMATE.

Tne Fourto Crimsate.

18 …

18

18

18

28

10

21

85

30| 37

60

42. …

36 35)

35

88

87

«. | Tangier.

40| A town 4 marches from Ceuta, N.-W. of Miknessa, built on the river Luccos. The chief town of the province was formerly Al Basra, but on its destrue- tion, the castle of Abdu’] Karim took the rank of the capital and was known as the castle of Ketéma. Abnif.

’ Reinand observes in a note that Abda’t Karim is a branch of the Berber tribe of Ket4ma and this castle was also sur- named Alkasr al Kabir. This name is retained in K. Johnst. as applying to the modern town Lxor.

Cordova.

60] Seville.

30. Ceuta, anciently Lepta. The deg. and min. of Lon. are inaccurate in the text and seem generally to have been en- tered without discrimination or care and impossible localities assigned.

60| Algeciras. The epithet of the ‘isle’ was given to it, says Ibn Sayd, from an island in the vicinity. It is now joined to the continent. The epithet of “the island” is also given to Mesopotamia and the difference by which the rela- tive adjectives of these localities is distinguished is, that the former is Aljaziri, the latter Aljaziri. Abulf. II. 347. ;

16] Merida, the ancient Augusta Emerita, built by Publins Carisius legate of Augustus in B.C. 23, who colonised it with the veterans of the 5th and 10th legions whose term of service had ex- pired (emeriti) at the close of the Can- tabrian War. It became the capital of Lusitania and one of the reatest cities in Spain. Geog. Dict.

3(| Toledo, the ancient Toletam, (TéAnroy, Ptol.) According to an old Spanish tradition it was founded in 540 B.C. by Jewish colonists who named it Toledoch, +. e., mother of people, Ibid,

80| Granada.

Names,

J ayyan ” Almariyyah aie ke Medinatu’l Faraj ss ,, …

Mélakah ”

Manah, var Maltah

Island of Y&bisnah, Medi- terranean

Island of Mayurkah, Medi- terranean

Bianah, Africa

e Island of Sardfniyah, Africa, Mediterranean. Capital of the Island of Sicily Balraghddmis, ranean

Mediter-

Island of Shimas, Medi-

terranean » Tkvitisa ” » Knubrus ” n_ Radis +3

» Hamartya

.

» Sakliyah sh She

THE FOURTM CLIMATE.

21 40 24

25

40| 35)

77

Norrs.

38. 650] Jnen.

60] Almeria.

36{ 40| Now Guadalajara, Wada’l Hajérah the

87] 30)

80

38] 10)

36] …

river of stones, Amnis lapidum of Ro- dericus Toletanns. Gayangos. Mahom. Dyn in Spain, I. 319. The name in the text signifies the ‘city of the opening or gap’ which Reinand supposes to convey the meaning of frontier city.

This meaning of ¢ -y3 ag equivalent to » is borne out by Belazuri v. Gilde-

meister. De Reb. Indicis, p. 37.

Malaga, the ancient Mataca ofewhich Avienus says.

Malachsequeflumen, urbe cum cognomine, Menace priore quw vocata est seculo. Ore Mar. 426-7.

In the second line he is in error as Moonaca is the modern Almuiiecar, in Arabic Munakkab. ‘

Gladwin has here Malta, with the degrees of Lon. and Lat. which aro absent from the text; perhaps a wmissoript for

Minorca ( a3, ). Iviza, anciently Ebusas. .

Majorca, ,, Balearis Major.

50] The modern Bona, on the coast of Constan-

tine prov. in the vicinity of the ancient Hippo Regins.

Palermo.

Barghademé is the nearest approach to the name in Abnlf. but the Lat. is 57° and Reinand considers the country between the Oder and Dnioper to be meant, but the text mentions it in the Mediterranean.

Samos.

Crete.

Oypras.

Rhodes, mentioned elsewhere with a different deg. long. i. e., 44°.

85| I suspect this to be Morea; in Abalf.

Lamoreya but the location doea not correspond as to Lat. and Lon.

sicily. Thus in the text but according to Yakdt, the orthography is Sikilliyyab.

ee ee ee: om (eee Oe, en eae eee

Names.

THE FOURTH CLIMATE.

Notes.

Atheniyah, the city of philosophers, Greece

Jarin

Tarsis

Bayrat, Asia Minor

Ayas, Armenia

Adanab Do. — Masj 0.

Bars Birt Do.

Atrabolos, Syria Baghras

Do.

Bab Sikandaranaoh ,,

Ladhakiyyah dims F Shughr Bakés

Snwiidiyyah Malitiyyah

Shaizar

”

eee

Antakiah, on the Roman

frontier

Sarmin, dependency of

Aleppo Kionasrin

Halab, one of the chief

cities of Syria Sumaisat, ; Hisn Mangsir

Syria …

Do.

68 69

69] …

69 69 69

vil) “4

An old castle in ruins opposite Constanti- nople. Reinaud gives its Lon. 60° and Lat. 45° and writes the name Aljeroun, suggesting a better reading, Aljedoun, by which Chalcedon would be implied, II. 89, Guyard doubts whether the Ara- bio article before Jarin is admissible (II II. 142) and his objection ig well

founded. ;

In the Gulf of Iskanderan.

The ancient Mopsuestia.

One march N of Sis between little Armenia and Carmania. A atrong citadel on a hill commanding the country.

Tripoli.

3}The ancient Pagre near the Syrian

gates on the Syrian side of the Pags. Through these gates the ray ’Acauplwy wida: of Arrian, Alexander passed and recrossed turning back to meet Daring atIssus. Arr. J. VI. VIIL.

Alexandretta or Iskanderin.

Latakia.

Hems. :

Two strong fortresses within a bow shot of each other, half way between Anti- och and Famyah. The fermer name occurs in K. J. supposed to have been Seleucia ad Belam. ‘

The ancient Seleucia.

Properly Malatyah, according to Yakat and is in Asia. Minor not Syria proper. A corruption of Katodpea (wuvets) or Cesarea Phillipi. In his remarks on Ha&math, Shaizar is said by Abulf. to be remarkable for the number of ite

norias. ; Antioch.

One march south of Aleppo between it and Maarrah. o

Aleppo.

Anciently Samosata.

Near Sumaisdt, named from Mansir-b.- Jaunah-b. al Harith al Aamiri to whom was intrasted its constraction under Marwan, the Ass.

THE FOURTH CLIMATE. 79

RY

‘Loner- | Lati- TUDE. | TUDE. Names. Notes. M.| D. | Mf. | D. |

B8ardj » «| 72! 40; 86) 8/In Mesopotamia, now in ruins, in the environs of Harrfén: it is marked in Mambij eee 36) 30 Hierapolis, @ name given by Selencus

Nicator in substitation of Bambyce

(BapBixn) as it was called by the

natives, being the chief seat of the

worship of the Syrian goddess Astarte.

" Itis the Mabog of Plimy. See its hist. in Smith’s Geog. Dict.

After the great inundation of Aram, famous in Arabian history, which is assigned to a period shortly after the death of Alexander the Great, eight tribes were forced to abandoa their homes, from some of which arose the kingdoms of Ghassan und Hira. About this time also occurred the migration of colonies led by into Mesopotamia . by Bakr, Mndhar ae} Babiah, thd” eponymous gbiefs of the three provinces

• names after them, Diydr Bakr, Di Mudhar and Diyér Rabiah. See . Sale. Prel. Dis. 7.

87] -4u) Anciently Carrhse, the Haran or Charran of Genesis; xi. 31. xxiv. 10. v. Geog. Dict.

In the text 8. for 88. Lat. and Lon, 5’ for 45’. In Diy&r Bakr; Guyard (IT. Tl. 54) says that it also bears the name of Arzan, not to be confounded with Arzan u’r Rim or Erzeroum,

Rakkah, Diyér Madar…

Harrén sn, hee

Kalikalé, Armenia os

Mérdin, Diyér Rabiah …

Mayy4é Férikin Diydr Bakr The capital of Diyér Bakr. Here is the tomb of Saifu’ddoulah-b.-Hamdan.

87/45] Close to Mayy4 Férikin. Yakat.

86. … | The ancient Circesiam, situated on the

Euphrates and Khabar, near Rakkah.

Marked in K. J.

37| 80] Marked in K. J.

Hattakh jor kees Karkisiyé - ,, Mudhar

Jazirah, Ipn Omar, Meso- patamia . Nagibin, Diyér Rabiah 87| 40] The capital of Diyar Rabiah. Its roses = have the pecaliarity of being white, no red roses are found there. Ibn Batatah quotes Abu Nawis in praise of it and is himself of his opinion. An- other poet finds the place sickly and quotes the pallor of its roses in proof. Vol. IZ. 141, Travels. Makisin, Mesopotamia ‘Gite On the Khabir, 7 parasangs from Kar- kisiyah and 22 to Sinjar. Abuif. Sinjar, Diyar Rabiah _… ; j Maarrat u’n Nyamaa, Syria The name is from Nuamén-b.-Bashir 3 companion of Muhammad, who died

. while his father was Governor of

THE FOURTH CLIMATE.

; pap a ‘ B pecs Feorernan eames ces -

Loner. TUDE.

Irbil, a large city with a strong fortress, a depen- dency of Mausil

Atinah, Mesopotamia —… Madinah i Balad, Diydr Rabfh

Mansi, Mesopotamia Arjish, Armenia we

Hadithah, on the Euphrates

Amid, Diydér Bakr bes Hadithah, on the Tigris Naushahr, .Jrak

ote

Tikrit, Mesopotamia… SamarrA, Irak or

Salmis, Azarbijén

Khowayy, Azarbijén

eee

Urmiyyah Do. oes

Irbil, capital of Shahra- gar

M.

69

Latt- TUDE.

D. | M. o.| Nl

45

Emesa and was here buried. It had been previously named Dhat u’] Kagar, “ possessing palaces,” and it is also said that Nnamanis the name of a monntain overlooking it. Ibn Batutah, I. 144.

8} Arbila, now Erbil, Yaikat gives the Lon. - 69°, 30’ Lat. 35° 30’, describes it as a large city with a strong fortress two days’ march from Mausil of which it is a dependency. This name must be pro- nounced Irbil and not Arbil which he says is not admissible.

301 A small town on the sf tie eas,

io Priousil, Abulf. It is

Mmmonly written Balad, simply.

Mosal in the maps. —

FO\ A fortress situated on the N. of the Lake of Van identified with the ancient Arsene,

35| There are two of the name. (New Town) one in Mesopotamia below Adneah and another of Munsil. The former is here meant. (It is marked in K.J.) The latter follows.

The present town of Diydr Bakr.

6

his isa Persian name, synonymous with midi Veheme7” but do not trace it in Abulf. or Yakat.

Originally Sarraman rf&a, viz., “ rejoiceth him that seeth it,” built by the Caliph Al Mnatasim-b’illdhi in 218. A.ell., (A. D. 833) see my Hist. of the Caliphs for its origin, 330.

40. Situated on the extreme W. of Azarbi- jan at 7 parasangs from Khowayy. Abalf.

41. 12 parasangs N.-W.of Marand ; 21 miles from Salm4a.

Or Urmiyah, on the borders of the lake of the same name.

20| The district or hill country called by the

geographers Jabal, is part of Persian

Trak, and according to Ibn Haukal is

its distinguishing feature® The inhabi-

tants are all Kards. Shahraztz accord- ing to Yakdt is a large town in the mountains between Irbil and Hamadan, the chief of a cluster of towns and villages comprised under the same name. (Soe also Ibn Khaldin, De Slane

I. 145.) This is certainly the same

town as the Irbil mentioned a little

THE FOURTH CLIMATE. 81

above, viz., Arbela, which has been inadvertently entered twice. J account for the difference in Lon. between thé two by Abul Faz!’s confasing the first meridians, taking the Fortunate Isles in one instance and the W. coast of

Africa in the other. Abnulf. gives Lon.

69°, 50’ Lat. 86°, 20’ which is approxi-

mately that of Abul Fazl’s first men- tioned Irbil.

50| N. BE. of Tabriz, the ancient Maranda,

80| The town was named after Zir-b.-Zohék

who founded it. Yakat:

{ Yakat visited it in A. H. 617 (A.D. 1220) and remarks the extraerdinary fact, that notwithstanding its good air and many streams, not a fruit tree was to be seen in or near it in the plain on which it stands. Fruit has to be brought from a day’s journey the other side of the hills and no frnit tree will thrive

– tifere. According to the Kdnin the Lon. is 78° 50’, and the Atw4l 72° 30’, and both make the Lat. 88°.

80, $7] 20] A small town of little importance, and little noticed by Abulf. In the Diot. de 1a Perse it is said to have received from Ghazan Khén the name of the city of Telém.,

45, 87| 49) Yakdt permits two spellings of this name

wht and Wye, Anciently Nax-

uana on the N, bank of Araxes. In Ar- menian tradition it is connected with the first habitation of Noah and his landing from the ark. Geog. Dict.

60| 36] 40) Near Kirmisin, between Hamadin and Hulwén on in Baghdad road. It was named after the beantifal Shirin wife or mistress of Khusrau Parwiz. The legend of its building is told by Yakut who says that this monarch was famed for three incomparable treasures, hia horse Shabdiz, his mistress Shirin and his minstrel Balahbad.

60, $1] 40] See under Shahraztr for Jabal.

Marand, Azarbijan ee

Shabrazdr, one of the towns of the Jabal

Ardabil, Azarbijan oes

Aujdn, Azarbijén eo. | 81

Nakhchuwén, in Arran… | 81

Kasr-Shirin, Azarbijan …| 81

Saimarah, in the Jabal | 81 district © Mardghah, Azarbijén _…

fo) Ww

87| 20) The name of this town was originally Afréz Haroz. The army of Marwan, Governor of Armevia and Azarbijén ander Hishém the Umayyad Caliph here encamped in one of his expedi- tions. The stable litter of the cavalry and beasts of burden covered the plain and the animals constantly rolling

s a

11

82 . THE FOURTH CLIMATE.

Notes.

themselves about in it (tamarragh, é. a), it received the name of the

“village of Marfghah” and subse- quently Marfghah only, (Yakit.) Its chief fame is derived from its connec- tion with the famous astronomer Na- sirn’ddin Tasi to whom this town was assigned by Hulakn for his observations, and Abulfeda notices a bill outside the city where Nasiru’ddin used to observe the stars.

Tauris, the seat of the royal residence of the Tartar dynasty of Holagn til! ita transfer to Sulténiyyah the new capi- tal founded by Khndébandah. Abalf. See its history in D Herbelot.

Ardabfl, Azarbijén «| 82) 25] 37) 90, A note to the text says that this name

Tabriz, Azarbijén ow | 82}… | 37

Mayfnah, Azarbijén … | Two days’ march from Maraéghah, in K. Kerménshéh in K. J.

In Y4kGt Dinawar, N.-W. of Hamadan, near Kirmisin. It is placed by the author of the Azizi at 40 parasangs from Maasil, 10 from the source of the Zab. and 40 from Maréghéh,

Hamadan (or dén) with its districts formed what was called the Mah of Basrah, as Dinawar and its dist. formed the Méh of Kifah. The word Méh

(slo) is derived from the same name

as Media (Méda) according to Lagarde and Olshausen (Guyard Ii. II. p. 163, n.) and employed by geographers in the sense of province. In the Dict. de la Perse, (v. M&h Dinar) the word is the Persian ‘Moon’ given to many towns and countries on acconnt of its influence on their fertility, a deriva- tien given by Yakdt under Méb Dindr and evidently fictitious. Zamakehari has a simpler explanation. The people of Basrah, he says, calla town ‘M4h’ and they employ Mah u’) Basrah, Mah wv’) Kafah, as they would use Kasa- bata’l Basrah, &c. The grammatical niceties of inflection connected with

Kirmisin, or Kirmaén Shéh in the Jabal dist. Dainawar ° Do. wee

Hamadan, Mah o’l Bagrah

THE FOURTH CLIMATE.

Lonel- Lati-

TUDE. TUDE. Names, y Notes. | D. | M.ID. | M.

this constraction are too long to tran- acribe (v. (5poy tle), Hamadin with

Nahdwand and Knmm form the Méh a’l Basrah.

80] ‘he most northern of the Jabal villages, { on the borders of Azarbijén.

.«.. | [wo marches distant from Derbend ac- cording to Ibn Haukal, but Abulfeda states that the town exists no longer and the name is applied to a tract of country bordering the Caspian, visited as winter quarters by Tartar hordes.

… | Near Zanjén, a little town inhabited by {) Kurds, Abulf. e

20. According to Yékdt, Nah&wand or Nihé- wand. Its situation is well known, its idle derivation from Noah (Néh Awand) may be read in the extract from Yakdt in the Dict. de la Perse.

80] A mere village. Abnuif.

Zanjén, Jabal. dist. we | 83]… Mékén, borders of Arran | 83) …

Sohraward, Jabal dist. ..} 83) 20

Nahéwand, Méhu’l Basrah,| 83} 15) Jabal. dist. *

Bimanshahr, of Hamadén| 84, 30

Bardjird, Do. …| 84] 80) 20| 18 parasangs from Hamadén on the Jabal dist., produces saffron. Abulf. Abhar, Jabal. dist. - | Si} 80 65| The text has incorrectly Ubhar. Yékdt

correctly places it between Kazwin and Zanjén and Hamadén, the latter forming the apex of the triangle of which the base is Kazwin and Zanjén, almost equally bisected by Abhar. It is said to be called Auhar by the Per. sians and a fanciful derivation given of Ab. water and ‘har’ a millstone, which latter signification I do not any where find. v. Dict. de la Perse.

20. At one day’s march from the sea, said to have been a considerable town, but it is not marked in the map.

e Kautam, Gilén… +. | 84) 40

Karaj, Jabal. dist. …} 74 45 The text has erroneously 5 for $ in the Lon. It is a town half way between Hamadién and Isfahan—~—called also e Karaj-i-Abi Dulaf, having been founded . by this general of the Caliph al Ma- min. Abulf. Yakut. Séwah, Do. «| 85) «. 15] Situate W. of Rayy, and S. of Télakén, and 12 parasangs from Komm. Kazwin, © Do. «| 85] .. | 86! 30) Sulténiyyah, Do. we | 85] «- | 86] 30] In Azarbijén. Its rains are marked on K. J. It is immediately south of

Zann: @ town founded by Khada- bandah son of Arghan, 12th of the khan dynasty D’Herbelot. art. Al Giaptu and Ibn Batitah. 11. 114 Abnolf. places it in the 6th Climate.

84

THE FOURTH CLIMATE.

Lonai- | Latt- Tope. | TUDE. NamEs. M.} D.} M.] D. Abah or Awoh, Jabal. dist.| 85) 10| 34| 40 Kumm Do. ..| 84 40) 34 45) Sarbéidkin Do. 85 85) 34) … Késhan Do. …{ 86) 12] 86… Natanz Do. …{ 86] 80) 38 13 Dumbswand Do… | 86/ 20) 35) 35 Rayy Do. …| 86| 20} 35| 53 Kadler, in Dailam ove g} 50} 36 385 Khuwér, Jabal dist. .. | 87] 10} 35) 40) )Télakan eee 85} 45! 36; 80) Hausam, Gilén .., «| 85! 10) 37) 10

Dailamén (Isfahdn) Sb Dasht (Do.) … eee

Lahajan, Gilén.., ex Wimah, town of Dambé- wand.

Amul, Tabaristén oe:

Daémaghén, Kimia oes

Norgs,

In K. J. Avah, at the foot of the Kara- ghan Mts. 27 parasangs north-east of Hamadén.

Kim in K. J. directly 8. of Teheran. The inhabitants are all Shiahs and Y&kdt amusingly describes the attempt of 2 Snuni Governor to find any one named Abu Bakr in the whole town. A wretched tatterdemalion was at length produced after a long search as the only specimen the climate conld grow of that name.

Between Karaj and Hamadén. There is another of the name between Astaré- bid and Jurjén.

A smaller town than Kumm and in its vicinity Its houses mostly constrac- ted of mudand their inhabitants Shiahs. Abnif,

A small town 20 parasangs from Isfa- han. Ahbuilf.

Demavend in K. J. It marks the frontier of Rayy.

The ancient Rhigw.

With Kalér is coupled in the text

a corrupt name, perhaps, a misscript for

Salous from which it is only a march distant. Kalar is a town 8. BE. of Lahajén, which is S. B. of Resht.

A dependency of Rayy between that town and Simnan.

Between Kazwin and Abhar, not to be confounded with the Talakén of Khu- rasan.

In the Jabal district beyond Tabaristén and Dailam is all the information in Yékut.

Yakat describes it as one of the villages of Isfahan in the Jarjan territory.

A village of the Isfahaép district—also @ small town in the mountains be- tween Irbil and Tabriz popniated by Kurds. Yakdt.

Atwal, Lon. 74° —_ Lat. 36°, 15’.

Do. ,, 77°, 20’ ,, 365,10’. Kanén, Lon. 76°, 35’ Lat. 36°, 20’. A small town between Rayy and Tabaristan. Abulf,

Atwal, Lon. 77° 20’ Lat. 86°, 85’. Capital of Tabaristan.

Atwal, 78° 55’ Lat. 36°, 20’.. The largest of the towns in Kdmis territory ac- cording to Ibn Haukal called by Yakut.

THE FOURTH CLIMATE. _85

p. |. D. | M.

Simnén, Capital of Kimis| … | . |… | … | Atw4l, Lon. 78°, Lat. 36°. Kénin Lon. 79°, Lat. 86°.

Biyér, Mazandarén eee | coe | cco | cee | oe | A picturesque town between Baihak and Bistém, two days’ march from the latter. Dict de la Perse.

Bari, Do .. «+ | 88]… | 37] … | Also written and more commonly Séri-

yah, its derivation from we “ Tra.

voelling by night” according to Yakat

but the reason is not evident. It lies ih 3 parasangs from the sea and 18 from ” Amul. .

Bistim, Kimis … ee | 89) 30] 36) 10) According to Guyard, properly Bastém and vuigarly Bistam ; bat Yakdt gives only the latter orthography. We adds that its apples known as Bistémi are beautiful and ruddy and are sent to Irak, It ig celebrated also for two character- istics and fatal to two disorders which have little in common except blindness, namely, love and opthalmia. A lover is said to have been unknown and ao draught of its waters is sufficient to still the ardour of any unsuspecting visitor. Bat romance is not a necessity of existence and the continuity of the population is not affected. Taken fast- ing, fora ducedes ordus, the bitterness of the water is likewise salutary, and effectual when used medicinally against hemorrhoids. The town de- serves to be recommended as an excel-

lent Spa. Astarfbad, Mazandaran… | 89) 35] 36) 50) Jurjan, Capital of its pro- | 90) … | 86) 50) Its ruins alone are marked in K. J. vince. Faréwah, Khurdsén vo] 90) … | 39} … | On the frontier of Khwérizm ; it is called

Ribat Farawah, a fort constructed by Abdu’llah b. Tahir in the Caliphate of Mamin. Abulf.

Sabzawar … rey «.{ 911 80} 386) 15] The chief town of the canton of Baihak a position previously held by the town

« of Khnusraajird. . Isfaréin or Mihrjén, Khu-} 91) 40} 36) 66] In the environs of Noisibir half way to résan Jarjén. The name of Mibrjan is said to

have been given to it by Khnusran Ku- béd, father of Nushirwan, on account of the beauty of its climate and the freshness of its air. (Abulf.) Abu’l Ké- aim al Baihaki according to Yakut, says that the ancient form of the name was Isbaréin, from isbar, a buckler, and Ain custom, on account of the tradi- tional usage of this weapon of defence from the time of Isfandiyar.

86. THE FOURTH CLIMATE.

a Ap SE PES ESS REPT SE

Notes.

Abaskin, Mézandarén …| 89) 55] 37] 10] The text has Abisgin, I follow the safer direction of Yakdét; situated on the borders of the Caspian; 24 para- sangs from Jurjén.

Mazinan, frontier of Khu-{ 90) 385) 386] .. | On the extreme frontier of Khurésén

rasin bordering on Irék. —-

Tarshiz .. | 90) 16} 33]… | The text has turned the Lon. into a series of 3 figures and marked the town as unknown. A reference to Yakit would have shown that Tarshish or Tur- aithith, celebrated for its savants and devotees, isa town and district depen- dent on Naisdébir. ‘The Persian ortho- graphy of the name is correctly repre- sented in the text, (v. Dict. de la Perse. 890. n.) In the Zinat-u’l Majalis, it is said that in one of its boroughs called Kashmir, is a cypress celebrated for ita beanty and height and said to have been planted by Gushtasp the sage, and alluded to by Firdausi in his Shéh Némah, (Mohl. t. 1V, p. 364). It was uprooted by the order, it is said, of the Abbaside Mutawakkil, who was cer- tainly capable of the barbarity.

Naish&bar, one of the chief| 92} 80] 86] 20) One figure too many in the Lon. Yékut cities of Khurdésén writes Naisébir-valg. Nashéér.

Tas, Khurdsén «| 92| 80) 84 20 2

Mashhad, it adjoins Nakén| 92] 83) 384) 29) Known as Meshed. It stands on the ruins of Naukan and takes its name from the Mausoleum (Mashhad) of Ali, son of Musa ar Ridha, and is too well- known for description. ‘

Tin e.| 92) 80) 84)! 80! Town of Kohistén near Kéin. Dict. de la Perse. Nékén, not the Naukén of | 92)… | 88] … { The Lon. of both this and the preceding Mashhad are misprinted in the text, this must be the Nukan in the environs of Naisé- , bir. Kéin, Khurdésén «. | 93] 20) 87) 80] The capital of Kohistan. Kayn in K. J. Zazon, Kohistau – | 93] 80) 85} 20] Between Her&t and Naisaour. Buzjén, Khurdsin we | 94 .. | 36)… | A small town 4 marches from Naisé- bar.

Marw, Sh4bjahén, Do. … | 94 20) 387; 40/1 refer the reader to the Dict. de la Perse for the lengthy eXéract from Yakut of this celebrated town, destined perbaps to become more celebrated under another Tartar invasion more permanent than those that preceded it. Its fevers, dysenteries; guinea- worm and its horseflies detract from ita convenience as aresidence. Yakut had it not been for the devastations of the

THE FOURTH CLIMATE. 87

Loner | Lart- Tupg. | TUDE.

Names, Nores.

D. | M. | D. | Mf.

Tartar, would willingly have spent his days there.

8

Herét, Khurfésdn «| 941 20) 34 Sarakhs Do. «| 94 30 Badaghis Do. we | 941 80! $4) 20) Yakut writes it with 3 which I follow;

« ~

8| In the text read 8, for 3, min. of Lat.

a dependency of Herat, the chief town or towns of the canton being Bamfin

and Bann cyboly 49: that adjoin

ve each other. Marw ér Rad, known as| D4)… | 36] 80] The word 9,0 signifioss white flint that Marghab gives fire, and rid is a stream, (the

Murghéb). The town is 4 dayq’ march

(Abulf. says five) from its more cele-

brated namesake. The relative adjec-

tive of this name is Marwarddi, and that of the other is Marwazi, to dis- tingaish them.

Malin, of Herét … | 94} 80] 84) 385) Name of a cluster of villages at 2 para- sangs from Herat, and called at Herét, Malan. Yakat.

Bushang + | 96 40] 86 3] Bushanj in Yakut, a picturesque town, 10 parasangs from Herdét, According to the Dict. de la Perse, the Persian name is Fashanj deriving its origin from the son of Afrdsidb.

Baghshir, Khurésén .. | 96] 25] 36) … | A small town between Herdt and Marw ar Rid. Yékdt passed by this in A. H. 616 and it was .then nearly in ruins. The name of Bagh is also given to this town and the relative adjective

is Baghawi formed from it, not quite 4 according to grammatical rale. Yakut. Karinain, Marw Shéh-| 97| 25] $6) 55] Situated on the Marw river, formerly jabén called Barkadir, but changed to Kari- nain, (dual of Karin, the two neigh- bours) because it was joined to Marwar Riad from which it is 4 marches dis-

tant.

Dandfnkén Do. …| 97| 80] 937| … | A small locality two marches from Marw

a in the Sarakhs direction. Its cotton is said to be of excellent quality and it produces silk.

Sharmakén ee | 104) … | 96) 41| By the Persians called Jarmakén, a small

e town in the Isfarain dist. four marches from Naisabir, in the Khurdsan hills.

Talakén, Khurdésén «| 981 .. | $6] 80| Not to be confounded with the Télaké between Kazwin and Abhar in th Jabal Dist. This one is said by Yakut! to lie between Balkh and Marw ar Rid, at three days’ march from the latter. It is not marked in the maps. Another

a ee ee en Seer eneneeen o

88 THE FOURTH CLIMATE.

Nanea, Norss.

Télokén is in Badakshdén near Kunduz 4 below the spurs of the Hindu Kush.

36] 45] The text omits the tens in the min. of Lon. but similar errors are almost too numerous to notice. Féryab is @ well- known town of Jarjan, 6 marches from Balkh, 3 from Shubrokaén and 8 from Télakan, Zahir Fary&bi was from this

Féryéb | 99

town. Balkh, capital of Khurd- | 101} 40) 36] 42 san Bamién, Zabulistén oe | 102)… 84! 35) ~ Halaward «| 101] 40} 87! 80) A town of Khuttal, a province of Khu- régin in Transoxiana of .which the i chief towns are this and Léwakand.

Khauttal is comprised between the Waksh and Badakhshan rivers.

Baléséghin oe | 101] 30} 37] 40) This is placed by Abnulf. in the 7th Cli- mate. A frontier town of Turkestin across the Jaxartes, near Kashgar, (Abalf.) in whose time it was in the hands of the Tartars. De Guignes, eyes of Malikshéh, son of Alp Ars- lan, in 1089, as taking Samarkand and passing on to Ouzkend, compelling the king of Ka4shghar to read the Khutbah and mint the coin in his name and forcing tribute from the princes of Taraz, Balasgoun and Iefijéb.

Siminjén, Tokhéristaén … | 102| … | 36) … | A emall locality in Tukharistén wedged in in between Balkh and Bagblan in the defiles, inhabited by a branch of the Bani Tamim. It is 2 marches from Balkh to Khuim and 5 on to Anderabah by Siminjin. Yakat.

Kub&dién, territory of | 102) … | $7| 45] A pleasant spot fall of orchards, Abalf.

Balkh the town and district are marked in the survey map, across the Oxus directly N. of Khalm.

Walwalij, in Tukbaristén | 102} 20] 386) … | The capital of Tukbdristan according to Abulf. which was anciently the king- dom of the Ephthalites (Hayétilah) 4 parasangs from Taikiu.

Saghényfin, Transoxiana | 102| 40 388) 50] Pronounced Jaghfnyanu in Persian; the name of the town is extended to the country about it, larger than Tirmid but not so rich or populoug. Abuif.

Taikén, Tokhéristén …| 102} 50} 87| 25|In the environs of Balkh. It is sepa- rated by a distance of 7 parasangs from Khuttal, Abnif.

Anderab, Khurésén .-» | 108} 45} 86] … | Between Ghaznah and Balkh, the road by which caravans enter Kébul. Ad- jacent is the montain of Panjhir with ~

ite mines of silver, Badakshén ee | 104] 40] 387] 20)

a Tg ae eerie

THE FOURTH CLIMATE. 89

Lonet- ] Lati- TUDE. TUDE.

Nantes. : Notes. D. E D. | M. Kabul «| 104) aol 34) 380 ; Banjbir, Kébulistin …| 104] 40, $4] 30) Properly Panjhir, Yaékat, see Vol. I, p- 399. n. :

Lamghién “$ -.. | 104) 50) 84) 8 Karwez, Badakshin …| 105} 20] 36] … | The text has 5; vw marking the word

as corrupt and the place unknown. Gladwin writes Gardiz, but this Timén is S. of Kabul and S. E. of Ghazni. I would propose Kunduz thongh I find

oe no trace of this name in Yakut, Abuilf.,

u or Ibn Hankal. Richardson (Dict.) calla Kanduz, a city bailé by Jamshid, Its striking similarity to the famous castle of Gangdiz, and the name Kang or Gang signifying Sogdiana, (Iteinaud Abulf. I, cexxiii) suggests inferences which are attractive to pursuers of verbal analogies but are oftener fal- lacious than otherwise. In the Burhén i K4ti, Kanduz is said to be a contrac- tion of Kuhan diz, i. ¢., the ancient citadel, and is a town in Turan built by Feridin, now called Baikand. Yakut, under Baikand, makes no allusion to the former name.

Jirm, Badakshén ase | 104 20, 836] …

Kashmir «| 98) 40, 86) 15) I read €? for € of the text for deg. of Lon. and 4 for min. of Lat. These alterations which the similarity of the letters and the constant inaccuracies of the text justify, will bring this town approximately to the location of Tar- shiz (p. 86) of which it is a neighbour.

i Yakut places it near Naisdbir. Source of the Mibrén, 125) … 1 86) wo (Indus) Sarfatain aus] cee | ose | oe | oes | From this name to the end, the degrees

of Lon. and Lat. do not occur in the principal MSS. Many of the nomes are repetitions of those preceding and very corrapt. "

Jisr vec | ce | cee | cee | ove | A place near Hirah, the scene of a battle between the Persians and Arabs in A. H. 18, in which the latter wore de- feated. The word signifies a bridge, which was thrown across the Euphrates by which the Arabs advanced to the attack. Yékat.

Harrén ase | see | cee | one | one | Preceded.

ar4dah vee foe see eee see Parhén P. Shas [cekce t| Bes f (eas vee

90

FOURTH CLIMATE.

Malin P Abrakhis ? Audmiyyah ? Karmisin Daurik

Diydr Bakr Karinain Ninawé

Palangan ? Kaisar

Bijéyah, Mauritania

Balansia

Samus

Ayiis

Irkah, Syrian coast

Rakbah ? Sahyin, Kinnasrin

Hiarim, of Aleppo

Faémyah, (Apamea)

Shnizar Hamat, Syria

eee

tee

Preceded as Kirmisin.

This is mentioned by Abtlf. as a depen- dency of Khizistén, 10 pnrasangs from Bésyan and 18 from Arrajén, in the 8rd Climate.

Tee

Nineveh, the lat. of thia place is the

same as Mausgil which it faces on the opposite bank of the Tigris, Lat. 36° 30’, Lon. 67°. Abalf.

Atwal, Lon. 60°, Lat. 40°. Kaisariyyah in Asia Minor, capital of the Ottoman Snitans, concurrently or alternately with Iconiam. Abulf.

Placed by Yakut on the sea-shore on the borders of Africa proper and the Maghrib or N..W. Africa, three days’ journey from Milah. It is the modern Bougie.

Valencia, Lon 20° Lat., 88° 6’. Abulf.

Samos, preceded, as Shamus.

EBrek, Lon. 60° 15’, Lat. 84°, asmall town defended by a citadel, 12 miles 8. of Tripoli, a parasang from the sea, the most northern part of the Damas- cus territory.

Lon. 60° 10’, Lat. 35°, 10°, celebratéd as one of the strongest fortresses of Syria, W. of Laodicen (Ladikiyeh) and one march from it (Abulf.) I¢ is Sajan in K. J.

Lon. 60° 80’, Lat. 85° 60’, a small town 2 marches W. of Aleppo, and one from Antioch, Abulf. It is marked in K. J.

Lon. 61°, 8’, Lat. 35°, digtrict of Shnizar, pronounced also with a prosthetic Alif. Another Faimyah, a town situate on the Famu’s Silh near Wéasit, Abulf.

Has preceded, -

On the Orontes between Emessa and Kinnasrin, Lon. 61° 55’, Lat. 84°, 46’ {Abnilf.) Epiphaneia; the location oy Plotemy is Lon. 69° 36’, Lat, 80° 26” It is supposed to be identicu] with Hamath (2, Sam. viii, 9, Kings, viii, 65,Is x,9,)called also Hamath the Great. It was called Hamath in St. Jerome’s day (see Smith Geog. Dict.) Abulf. saya

THE FOURTH CLIMATE. 91

TE EES

Marash, a fortress of| … |… |. Syria

Aintéb, dependency of |… |… | … Kinnasrin

Hign Kaifa, island in the} … |… |…

Euphrates

Siirt, Diydr Rabiah ww. | |],

Hisnu’t Tak, Rijistin

Milinj ? (Mayénij, Mayé- | … nah)

Karin ? eee ee eee oe Gilén ose | seo [see] ae Jawain tra eee

Jéjram, (between Naisdé-| … | .. |… bar and Jurjan

it is remarkable like Shaizar for the quantity of its norias ; even among the Syrian cities.

Atw4l, Lon. 61°, Lat. 36° 80’. One of two fortresses, the other Hadath, on the Syrian frontier. They were both captured by Khiélid, A. H. 15, Marash dismantled and its inhabitants driven out. Abnif. Aunsls I. 227. De Sacy in his Chrest. Arab, says, that its anci- ent name was Germanicia corrupted by the Syrians into Baniki, I. 130.

Lon. 62° 30’, Lat. 36°, 30. It is 3 marches N. of Aleppo, and at no great distance is the ruined fortress of Dolik® which name frequently recarsin the history of the wars between Saladin and Nir- v’ddin. Doluk or Delouc as he writes it, De Sacy identifies with the ancient Doliche, (Chrest. Arab III. 109) but this name was applied (Doliche or Dolichiste, a long island) to the pre- sent Kakava 8S. of Lycia by Ptolemy, Pliny and Alexander in his Periplns of Lycia. There is no other Doliche men- tioned in the Geog. Dict.

It is a town and fortress of considerable size, overlooking the Tigris between Amid and the Jazirat-i Ibn Omar of Diydér Bakr, Yakut says the river there is crossed by a bridge, the largest he had ever seen of a single span, flanked by two smaller ones. Amid is now Diyar Bakr. The location in the text is strangely in error. It is marked in K. J. as Hosn Kefa.

Lon. 68°, Lat. 37°, 20’, a town situate on a hill N. E. of the Tigris, one day’s march and a half from Mayyéfarikin, and 4 from Amid, to the S. of which Sijrt stande, Abnif.

Lon. 80°, 30’, Lat. 84°, 40, a fortress on a high mountain near an elbow formed by the Helmand in Sijistén. Abnif. Yakut does not mention it.

Has preceded, (p. 82.)

This district depéndent on Nais&bir of whioh Az&dhwar is the chief town. It is called by the Persians Kowén or Gowén, Abulf. II. II. 191.

92

THE FOURTH CLIMATE.

Jam, in the Naisdbir ter- | …

ritory, Farjistan ? ae [loos Mara ? see || “oes Karaj i Abi Dulaf coe | ase Nasa, Khurdésén Soa: | sees

Abiward, Khurdésd4n ve | ase Shahristan, frontiers of | … Khurdsén

Iskalkand, Takhdristén .. | …

Féarabr or Firabr, on the’ …

Oxus. Farmyab?P ,., oe | ses 1 Tamghaj ea Seis

eee vee

eee eon

Has preceded.

Lon. 82°, 8’, Lat. 38°, in Khurdésén on the confines of the desert, 67 parasangs N. of Sarakhs. Yakit gives the ori- gin of its name from the abandonment of the town by the male population on the advance of the Muhammadane. Seeing women, but only women, they ex-

claimed. ‘These are women (3 sy)

let us go and fight elsewhere,” and the name Nis& or Nasa was thus comme- morated. He places it at 2 days’ journey from Sarakhs; 5 from Marw lfrom Abivard and 6 or 7 from Naisé- bar.

Abivard in K. J.

This is another name for Isfahén, which followed the ancient name of Jayy. It fell into ruin and was replaced by Yahidiyyah, a mile distant from Shah- ristin and twofrom Jayy. Tho nome of Yahidiyyah arose from the tradition that Nabuchadnezzar, after the destruc- tion of Jerusalem transported its in- habitants to Isfah4n. Jayy-Isfahan fell into decay but the Jewish quarter prospered. This tradition according to Guyard is to be found in the Talmud, yv. Abuif. II. II. 160. There is a long article in Yakut on this city.

Atwal. 92° 20’, Lat. 36° 30’, A small town of Takharistén. The prosthetic alif is sometimes dropped and the word pronounced without it. Abulf.

Atwél 87° 30’, Lat. 88° 45’. On the Oxus towards Bokhara. Abulf. Accord- ing to Yakdt, it isa small town between the Oxusand Bokhara, and one parasang from the river; formerly called Ribét Tahir b. Ali.

This is the name of Noxshern China. Abulf., II, III, 230 n. According to D’Herbelot, Tamgag or Tamgaz (his transliteration of names defied even the penetration of Gibbon) is the name of a race of Turks or Tarko- mans, the same nation as the Gaz., who took prisoner Sultén Sanjar the Sel- jak.

THE FIFTH CLIMATE.

93

Kbuttlan. Transoxiana …

Waksh, Do.

Shaman, in Saghanyén … dio 3 eat> ? .

oe

Ushb4nah, Spanish Penin- sula

Shantarin Do. Centre of the Isle of Cadiz ” Madinah i Walid ot Mursyah ” Madinah i Sélem an Danya, Spain ave Tutelah, Eaat Do. … Sarakastah ,, 4, on Tortishah ,, 5, :

Jazirah i Mayurkah, Medi- terranean

Haikal, know? as Haikal i Zuhrah (Temple of Venus) N. Spain

Barshalonah, country of the Franks

Arbanah, Spain or beyond it

36

The name of a group of places beyond Balkh, a district distinct from Waksh, but under one and the same government. Its capitals are Haléward and Lawa- kand, Abulf. II, IJ, 228. It has been previously mentioned.

Atwal Lon. 90° 30’, Lat. 38° 20’, a town of the Saghériydn dist. in Transoxiana. Abulf. Of this latter mention has been made.

Tae Firtra Cimate. . 86] 45] 42| 40] Also called Lashbunah. Y&kit ‘OdArocet-

30;

15

nov of Ptol. Lisbon. The deg. of Lat. in the text for this and the next name are inaccurate.

45] Ancient Scalabis, now Santarem. After the fall of the empire, it received the name of St. Irene, from St. Iria, who there suffered martyrdom. Reinand.

mA The text has incorrectly Santerin.

20. Valladolid.

+. | Murcia.

20] Medina Celi.

80] Denia, anciently Dianium.or Artemisi- um from a temple of Diana that stood on a lofty promentory of the E. coast of Hispania Tarraconensis.

§5| Tudela.

80. Read ahuySya and the deg of Lat. wo for 0 Saragossa, Cmsar Aa-

gusta.

40] … | Tortosa, Colonia Julia Augusta Dertosa.

40] Majorca, see p. 77, = different location. given. . Port vendres, Templum Veneris.

• | For Lat. read 10 for 4.0, Barcelona,

ancient Barcino, traditionally foanded by Hercules and rebnils by Hamil- car Barcus who gave it the name of his family, @. D. Smith.

Not Urbunah as in the text, Narbo Martins, the Roman colony was found- ed in B. C. 118, D. B. The Arab geographers are divided as to its posi-

tion whether in Spaiu or beyond it.

Manges.

Lonet- TUDE.

THE FIFTH CLIMATE.

Latt- TUDD Norgs.

Tarrakdnah, country of the Franks

Jenua, in Frankish terri- tory

Rimiyah, city of the Pope Rabisah ? Madiuah i Tabarkah

ove

eee

Sazirah i oy a

Jazirah i, Sabély& ? Mansalya Middle of

Euxinus.

creel ge {

the Pontus

rina palo

eee

Middle of Manus ? … The extreme of the Yar-

kahi territory. ? urep Laie P Mouths of the Tanais .., orbs ly ere Pa,

Alaya, in Ram (Asia Minor)

33] … 41} … 33| … “s5| 12 58} 50) 55) 15 45| 30) 35] 15 35

36| 45 62] …

48. 22. Tarragona, Tarraco, a Phoenician colony, its name Tarchon said to mean a cita- del, probably derived from its situation on a high rock above the sea, v. Geog. Dict.

20; Anciently Genua, the orthography Janua to support the tradition of its foand- ation by Janus has no anthority.

41} 21

48} 15] On the Mauritanian coast, E. of Bona but this lat. does not harmonize with previous latitudes in Mauritania. Yakdat gives but one town of Tabbarkah and places it with accuracy near Beja and to the east of the town are the castles Benzert (Biserta.)

42| 15] The word is not pointed in the original and no indication is given.

48. 15

49. 1

50. 5

48° 82|}I have little doubt that for Asfaras

should be read Bosporus and the waters

of this channel are here intended.

The origin of the Thracian Bosporus

attracted attention from the earliest

times and it was the received opinion that the union of the Euxine and the Mediterranean was effected by a violent disruption of the continent in the deluge of Deucalion, v. G. D. Smith. … |The name in the text is without vowel points.

I do not hesitate in the emdendation Borysthenes (Dnioper) and the mouths of the river are here intended. There may be ingennity, there is no profit in the discovery ; the whole list of

| Abul Fazl is the work of a scribe, not of a geograpker.

Marmaros ?

|

|

… | The name is unpointed. Porhaps Istros.

we |… | The Don. ose The second word is a corruption of Palas Meotis, which occurs in Abulfedah in another similar form as Manitasch, II, II, 143. : 89} 30! The ancient Coracesium, the boundary between Pamphylia and Cilicia, v. Ibn Batatah, II, 255.

THR FIFTH CLIMATE. 95

Lonet-

Lati- TUDR. TUDE. Names. Norss. D | M. | p. | M. Ammiriyyah Asia Minor…| 64) … | 48] … | Read deg. of Lat al for é The an-

cient Amorinm. Akdryah, called also Anka-| 64; 40) 41) 45) In Abulf. Ankiryah. Now Angora. rah, Do. Makedinyah, prov. of| 60! 55} 41] … | MaxeSovia.

Constantinople.

Akshahr, Asia Minor] 65) … | 4&1} 40| The white city, 3 days’ march, N.-W. of Iconiam.

Kanyaoh 1 cee | 666} 80) 41) 40) Iconium. .

Kaisarfyyah » +e} GOl *25| 40| . | Ceesaren, originally Mazaca, afterwards Eusebeia, the residence of the kings of Cappadocia. The name was changed to Ceesarea by Tiberius. G. D.

Aksaréi » | 67} 45) 40) … | The white Palace, the ancient Arthelais.

Siwds - » «| 71/30} 40; 10} Sebasteia on the Halys; Pompey increas-

ed the town and gave it the name of

Megalopolis ; it was made the capital of

: Armenia Minor.

Tarabazin «| 78) … | 43] … | Trebizonde. Anciently Trapezus named probably from its situation on a table land above the sea. Its annals are of historical interest from the time of Xenophon’s retreat to its fall ander Mahomed II in 1460.

Shimshat «| 73! 15] 40) … | Samosata, the birth-place of Lucian. Its situation on the Euphrates gave it, great strategical importance and it was seized by Vespasian when Antiochus, king of Commagene, meditated an alliance with the Parthians to throw off the yoke of Rome. It contained the royal residence.

Malazjird, Armonia … | 75) … {| 39) 30] A small town near Arzun and N. of Bidlis, Abulf.

Akhlat Do. +s | 75} 50! 39) 20) Now Aklat on Lake Van.

Baba’l Hadid ver} 76) vee | AM) one Read Lat. Le. Darband or the famous

Iron Gates called the Gate of Gates, Babn’ 1 Abw&b. The long article of Y4kdt translated in the Dict. de la Perse, p. 71, is an epitome of eastern

© knowledge or legend of its origin. Arzanjin –.| 78! «. | 39! 650) In Armenia, between Siwds and Erze- roum at 40 parasangs from either Abnif. Arzan ’ar Rif, Armenia | 76] … | 939] 65] Erzeroum. . Bardah, in Arran …] 83}… | 40} 80) For Lon. ,s° read é and the capital

of Arrén at the extreme of Azarbijan

nearly in ruins in Abulfeda’s time, Shamkar do. we | 83)… | 41] 60] Correct the Lon. and Lat. in the text, ; which are missoripts. Gladwin’s MS. has the true reading; a fortress near

Bardah. sb lament ett pt beta Nan TT gg

96

THE FIFTH CLIMATE.

Khankarah ? ast Arzandram was Taflis, Garjistin ove Bailakén, Arran _

Bikdéyah, Shirwén oe Shamékhi = do. eee Ramiya Kubra wae

Baba’l Abw&b, Arran…

Jazirah i Siah Koh, in the Caspian

Hashtar Khén oe. Agharjah eve Kath, Kbwarizm eee

Karkénj Sugbra Do…

83] … | 38] 40)

79| … | 41! 15) Marked doubtfal in the text, but it is evidently a replica of Arzan ir Rim, by an ignorant copyist.

83| … | 43} … | Tiflis, or Taflis (Yakat permits either vowel) capital of Georgia. The text omits two necessary points in the Lon. and Lat.

83| 30] 89! 60) Situate in the defile of Khazaran, near Shirwén, six parasangs from Warthan.

84. 30. 40, 60| Baku.

85. 30| 40] 650} Now Shemékha in K. J.

85] … | 41; 60| This must be Maddin Kisra, which has already’ preceded in the 8rd Climate, but with a different location. The practical use of these tables is not very evident. Madain, the ancient Ctesiphon had many names. Its name signifies

‘cities’ and was formed of the union of 7. Asfépar, Weh Ardashir, Hom.-, bou Shahpir, (Jundisabir) Darzindén, Weh Jundikbusran (Arab Rimiyah) and Nuniébad. Guyard, II, II, 76.

89| …| 43] … | This is the same as the Babu’ | Hadid or Darband. The difference in Lon. is no doubt caused by the change in the Ist Lon. and probably an crror in the units both in the Lon. and Lat.

89] … | 43} 80] The Siah Koh or Black mountain ap- pears from the indications in Ibn

Khaldin, (Proleg. I. 152, De Slane) to’ °

be the Cancasus. Abnif. places this island in the 6th Climate and this mountain in an island on the Caspian, and statesthat it is a range of moun- tains to the E. of the Caspian and circling round it to Darband. The eastern chain is called the Caucasus by Arrian. V.

soo | cee | oo | one | Astrakhan, the orthography in ia Batitah is Hajj Tarkhén. [5,3 gis Voyages II. 446. De Guignes, Haji Tarkhan, I. 296.

see {see | eee | aa. | Probably Georgia.

95. … | 41) 86] On the B. of the Oxus, alarge town according to Yakat, most of the Khwarizm territory lying to the W.

Jae pasagengs_fcom Kurkanj. Its meaning in the Khwarim tongue is a

wajl or enclosure in an open plain which is comprised within no other surrounding. 94) … | 42} 30|/So in the MSS. but changed to Gurganj by the editor. YakGt confirms the or- thography of the text. There are two

THE FIFTH CLIMATE. 97

Loner. | Dati- TUDE. TUDE. Names. fh ena Notes.

D. x |. | w.

eR

of the name, Kark&nj the Great, capital of Khwarizm(now Khiva) and Kurkanj, the Less at 10 miles distance. The Per- sian form is Gurganj, the Arabic Jarj- énfyyah. In 1216 it wae a flourishing

{ and populous town, Abuilf, Sarjénfyyah, Do. «| O42. | 42] 45 See note above. The labours of Abal { Fazl were confined to transcribing

withont investigation.

Karkanj, the Great, a 94 Sf) 42) 17) The deg. of Lat. in the last 8 names

capital of Khwarizm should be read 0 for Ho und the min. in the last name 3) for pe Simi-

lar gross errors which give impagsible

figares are frequent.

Hazérasb Do. … | 95] 20) 41) 10} A strong citadel on the W of the Oxus, 6 parasings Trom Kath, Abnif.

Lamakshar os * 94] 80) 4]… | A large village of which the famous’

commentator of the Koran Abo’l Kasim

Mahmud az Zamakshari wag a native.

Darghén, Trangoxiana .. | 96] … | 40) 80} Barks the frontier of Khwarizm towards

Marw, 24 parasangs from Hazérasb.

Bakhfré, one of the chiof | 97) 80) 389] 80

cities of ‘Transoxiana

Baikand, a dependency off 97) 380) 89} -.-

Bukhara now in rains

Tawawis, dependency of | 97| 40] 89] .-. | Seven parasanga from Bukhéré.

Bukhbaré

Jand, Turkistén …| 97) 45] 48) 80) Placed by Abnif. in the 6th Climate.

It is on the Juxartes on the frontier of

Tarkistaén, close to Yenghi-kent. Nakhshab, called Nasf …{ 98! … 89 … | The former is the indigenous, the latter the Arab form of the name, A town in the plain, 2 marches from thé moun- tains towards Kash and a desort in- tervenes between it and the Oxus.

Samarkand, one of the} 99) 40) … | Ite position is defined in detail by Ibn cities of Tyansoxiann Haukal. Ouseley, 260. P Vidk, Bukhéré «| 991 210) 48 20] Tek forms a district of Shfsh, extending

from Naubakht to Farghfnnah, accord- ing to Yukat, and the town of the name in the environs of Bukhira. Abulfeda makes it almost coextensive if not identical with Shash and its chief town Tunkat. I believe the word to signify . sammer station, in opp. to Kishlek,

winter station, Kash, or Shahr-Sabz, 99} 80] 89] 80| Yakut places it near Nakhshab. Its Badakhshan situation is given by Ibn Haukal. It is well-known by its name of Shahr i Sabz and lies directly 8. of Samarkand. Zémin, dependency of 92 40 40) 80, Pronounced also Zamij, on the Far-

°

Usraghnah ghinah road to Soghd, a small Jocali- ty in the environs of Samarkand,

Abulf, si Se Ba Mt OF ote fag eae eh ee ee

98 THE FIFTH CLIMATE.

2 Loner- DLatr- TUDE. TUDE.

Isfijéb, of Shash «| 92) 60) 48] g6| On the Turkestén frontier.

Usvishnah, a chief city of | 100 Beyond Samarkand on the Jaxartes. Transoxia see Y4ékat mentions it as a town, which

. Istakhri denies,allowing it to ke applied only to the territory. It is bounded on the B. by Farghduah, W. by Samark- kand, N. by Shésh, Abulf.

No farther notice in the geographers than the text affords.

At one march distance from Isfijab, 9 parasangs B. of Usrishnah.

7 marches to Samarkand and 4to Shash, Abnif.

Or Khakand, valgarly, Khokand.

Correct Lon. of text from <§ to ¢5, capi.

‘tal of Ylék, beyond the Jaxartes, Ibn Haukal says he has heard it pronounced also with the Jong a; Yakdt writes Tankat. It is marked in K. J.

The birth-place of the great Traditionist al Tirmidhi.

Situate on the bank of the Jaxartes. It ia mentioned by Baber in his Memoirs, (p. 6) as the strongest town in Far- ghaonh.

This district is described by Baber, Memoirs, p. 5. In consequence of its gardens being sheltered along the banks of the stream, it was called the mantle of five lambskins.

Correct Lon. and Lat.in text. A large town of Farghanah. It is the next largest to Akhsikat; the citadel in ruins, Abulf.

Now Khokand.

To what part of Russia this refers there is no indication. Abulf. has a town ‘Roussye’ (Reinand), its capital but in the 7th Climate, Lon. 57° 32’, Lat. 56°.

Shdwakath, of Shish … | 100) -

Usbinikath, territory of | 160) Isfijaib

Khojand, on the Jaxartes | 100

Khawékand, of Farghénah| 100) Tankat, a capital of Tash- | 101 kand

Tirmidh, on the Oxus .., | 101

Akhsikat, capital of Far- | 10) ghénah

Kéein, a town beyond | 101 Shish

Kabé, Farghd4nah «| 101

Farghéuah eo. | 202) .., Ris «| 102

Khotan eee | LOZ]. Extremo of Turkistén, celebrated for its musk, beyond Yuzkand and cis Kash- ghar. Abulf.

Chich, or Shésh eee | 109] …

Tibbet ~. | 110

Khaja, N. of China o. | 123 Caiyon of Marco Polot Kwatcheou. (Guyard), Abalf. places it 15 days’ journey from Pekin, between Khata (N. China) and Kaoli, province con- tiguous to the Corea.

Sankja do. o | 107]. Sou-tcheon.

Sakhas ?P oes | 190}

Mahri, of Khaté oe | 140 Khata is N. China. I do not trace the

name in Abulf., but Khuta, according

_to Yakit, is a town near Darband.

THE FIFTH

OLIMATE. 99

Nashawa or Nakjowén, in Arrén,

Kushényah, in Soghd of Samarkand.

Yumin ? re H a cule 9 ae Rakkén ? ois Kabs ? ea Abrik a

39. …

Ancient Nuxuana, on the W. bank of the Araxes, already precededin 4th Climate with a different location.

39] 60| The Kushén country is identified by

D. | ME 101! 30}

98; 20 oe gh? .

M. St. Martin with Bactriana. Hist. du Bas Empire III, 386 (Reinaud). Yunan? City of brass!

On this city Yékat says ‘It is a loca- lity in the Bildd ur Rum, (Asia Minor), visited from distant parts by both Moslems and Christians. Abu Bakr al Harawi who saw it, says that it is situated at the foot of a mountain, the entrance to it being through the gute of a fort. A subterranean pnasage leads to a wide space in the side of a hill with an aperture to the sky. In the middle is a pool round which are houses or chambors for the peasantry, whose fields are without. A church ond a masjid are hard by for the needs of both religions. In the Crypt are several dead men with marks of spear and sword wounds, the bodies dres- sed in cotton garments. In another spot four bodies are buried with their backs against the wall and with them a boy whose hand is on the head of a very tall man, vhe face of the latter is sallow, the palm of the hand open as if he were about to take the hand of another, and the head of the boy leaning on his breast. By his side is a man with his upper lip cnt open, showing his teeth. They all wear turbans. The bodyofa Woman suckling her child, is near, Five other bodies are standing with their backs against a wall, and apart on an eminence is a couch on which are 12 men and a boy, whose hands and fect are stained with hinna. The Greeks claim them as their own peo- ple but the Muhammadans say that they were Muslims, slain in the wars of Omar b-ul Khattéb. Some pretend that their nails have grown long, and that their heads are shaven, This is not the onse, bnt their skins have dried and shrivelled on their bones without other alteration.” I sappose this to be Prusa ad Olym-

100 THR FIFTH CLIMATE,

® | Loner- DLati- : :

7 TUDE. TUDE. Nangs, Notes. D. | M.| D. | Mf. piam in Bythinia, the modern Brusa, but the history of this town affords no clue to the above narrative and Ibn Batitah, who describes it under the name of yxy), II, p. 321 makes no mention of o curiosity which would scarcely have escaped his notice. Ufeds ° see | eee | ove | vee Loe | Bphesns. Bastah, dependency of| . |—| . | + | Baéza. Jaen in Spain

Knbé ? ese [oes [ives [iaee. seve

Sakein cee | soe | coe | ve | oes | The anthor of the Kitabu’l Atwdl men- tions a town called Saksin, Lon. 162°,

” 30’, Lat, 40, 50’. The people meant

were the Saxons or Goths who shared

the possession of the Tauric regions

with the Khozas. Reinand refers to M.

d’Ohsson’s Hist. of the Mongols for

Sacsin, v, II. I. 286.

Khattlén see | ose | cee | aoe | eee | Has preceded.

Mikhlat ? e6iall| seo Sees ikaeas | ees

Ram saei| ed Udsees [veeet Posse hf

Shémas aoe | eee | ove | oe | oo | The island of Samos, has preceded.

Shiyab ? oon | coe | wee | see | vee :

Bintarah, West ase | coe | eee | uoe | woe | Thas in the MSS. but changed by the Editor to Santriyyah. The fermor signifies Cintra, of which the pronun- ciation on the middle age was Syntria, (Reinand II. 244). There is also a Santriyyah to the W. of Fayyim, which cannot here be meant.

Kabrah, Spain ves | cee | oe | cee | cee | Onbra in Andalusin.

Kastalal : oes | eee | vee |. | aoe | Cnstile, properly Kastilydn.

Surknah P ‘és oo | cee | see | vee

Murghzi P <6 . soe | ooo | eee

Scotislah ws | ae | In Ibn Khaldin Skousya stands for Scotland, v. De Silane I. 108,

Batalyds, Spain oe | 29)… | 88] 50) Badajos, Pax Augusta,

City of W&lid ? see cee | vee | oe | oe | A Corruption of Madinah i Walid (Val-

y | lndolid) alrendy preceded.

Mursia cee | ove | vee | oe | oe | Murcia, preceded.

Dauya see | vee [vee | cee | o. | Denia, preceded.

Salom

ses | coe | ove | aoe | one | Medina Celi preceded.

Sarakustah coe | see | oes | eee | oo | Saragossa Do.

Nikib ry wee | cae | oe | coe | cee | TURAL, Tokal ? in Asia Minor.

Mush, Armenia … | 94} 80] 29] 80] Ancient Moxoene, two ‘marches from Mayyaférikin and 8 from Khalaf, Abulf,

Tus Sixta Crurmare.

Jallikiyvah, capital of the} 20 46| … |The capital of the Galician country ao-

Kingdom of Gallicia, cording to Abulf. is Zamora. Spain

THE SIXTH CLIMATE. 101,

Lati- TUDE.

LonGi- TUDE.

NaMEs. Nores.

‘D. | M. | D. | M. No Si oe a eee Banbalunoh, Spain … | 84] 16] 45] 15} Pampelans, or Pamplona, anciently Pom-

elo.

44. 16 Pecicatiy Bardigala, Bordeaux.

43} 60] This location in Abulf. is that of Milan capital of Lombardy, which ia here meant.

44. .. | Not Bundukyah as in the text, Venetia,

47| … | Pisa.

45. … |‘ Name of the capital of the Borjans, noted for their valour, exterminated by the Germans, and no trace of them is left.” Ibn Sayd quoted by Abnif. He places the town to the N. E. of Athens and extends the country as far as Constantinople. Reinaud’s qnjec- tures point to the Balgarians, bat they were known as the Bulghars, v. his references, II. 313. De Slane, how- ever, interprets the word similarly, in Prolog. Ibn Khaldin, I. 161.

Abzou, belonging to Con-| 69} 45) 50} . | Correct the Lon. for deg. and min. in

Bardal, Frankish territory | 80) 15 Lumbardyah Do. -…| 40| 30

Benedekyah we | 42). Biza, N. of Spain wee | 42)… Borshan ow | 50] ..

stantinople text. This is Abydos, Abulf. II. 36. Brsonsya, i.e. Constanti- | 59] 60| 43) … | Bugdyrior. nople Kanji Gyah … | 65 80} 46] 20| Corrnpted in the text to Kalsutah. It is Kastamtini in Anatolia, v. Ibn Batutah LI. 342. Sinwib, on the Pontic coast | 65} … | 47] … | Sinope. Hirkalah Do… | 67; 20] 46! 20) Heraclea Pontica; now Erekle. Amasyah Do…. | 57| 80) 45] … | Amasia S. E. of Sinope on the Iriaak.

46. 40. Still Sémsun, anciently Amisus. 46} 90! po, cy I would read (> Fardhat sig.

Samsin Do…. } 69} 20 Furdhat u’r Ram . | 74 80

nifies port. The meaning would then be a Crimean port, see post Kafa.

44. … | Now Daghestin. Tho Sarir is said to be a territory of the Allan (Allains) the capital of which is located in Lon. 74°, (or 72°) Lat. 43°, bat in Ibn Khaldin, I. 161, is Sinope. .

46] 30] The pnssage relating to this name in Abnailf. from Ibn Sayd@ is contradictory, placing the town on the S. of Darband, of Jorzéin and then on the Volga Re- inaud believes it to have been situated between the Volga and the Caucasus. Some maintain that it is the same as Ttil, a town taking its name from the

Sarir Allén, near Darband | 83] …

Balanjar, capital of the} 85; 20) Khazars

Volga (Itil) and which stood where now is Astrakhan. Jorzén is probably the Khorzene of Strabo, R.

46] 60] Kertch on the straits of Yeuikale, v

Kersh m the se f} 87] e hanes oP Travels of Ibn Batatoh, p. 855, II,

Azac (Azof) Yenghi-kent, Turkiatén… | 96] 30 Taraz, Tarkistén frontier 99} 50)

47

25 .., | Near Jatinjéb. ——

102 THE SIXTH CLIMATE.

Nanes, Notes, D.| M.] D. | M.

Fardb 7 ees oul w.. | ws | oe. | Probably a repetition of Fary4b preceded in the 4th Climate.

Shalj, Tardz territory …| 100] 30] 44] … | A small town on the Tarkistan frontier, Yakat.

102] 20) 44) …

Alméltk es. | 102] 20] 44) …

Uzkand, Turkistén «- | 102} 60} 44] … | Yazkand in Transoxiana, both forms are correct according to Yakat.

Kashghar, one of the chief”! 106| 30] 44] …

cities of ‘Turkistan

Artan Kalorén ? «| 106]… ] 46)…

Kataligh os | 108) 44} … | Probably for Khénbéligh, (Pekin) which follows lower down and has preceded in the first Climate under a third

~ form.

Kdrékurém, mountain in| … |… |… |…

Kohistan Khanbiéligh, capital of} …].. |… | .. China

Abildah ? aie eed. | edee: Pres, Piece

Asht ? soot ose | coe | cee | cee

Antazakht ooo | one oe | ese

Fartanah ? soe | coe | vee | coe | vee ee a corruption of Kurtubah, Cor-

ova.

Tatlyah ? coe | vee | ons | coe | ove | Tadela P

Aanit ? ve | coe | oe | ave | one | Sint ? (Sinope) P

Simin ? eos | cee f cee | coe | vee | Sdmsin ?

Kastamunyah, in Asia|.., | … |… |… | Has preceded.

Minor

Tardbazin ove | coe | coe | coe | ee Do.

Jandah see | soe | vee | coe | cee | Genoa P

Samirah, Spain ser] ser | vee [eee | soe | Zamora, read gg for gs

Lambardiyah ose | soe | coe | cee | ove | Has preceded.

Borshan i coe | coe | coe f ove | vee | Mas preceded.

Balanjar soe | cos | ose | see | eee Do.

Jébulisa soe} see | coe | coe | vee | ZAbalistin P

Desert of Kipohak ose | see | coe | ooo | one | The plain of Kipzac, says Gibbon, ex- tends on either side of the Volgain a boundless space towards the Saik and Borysthenes and is snpposed to contain the primitive name and nation of the Cossacks, CLXIV, v. Ibn’ Batitah, II, p. 356, who describes its character.

Tue Seventa Cimate. é

Shant Yéka, frontier of | 19 | … | 49 | … | St. James of Compostella. Spain Sakji, near the Enzine .,. | 58 | 37 | 50 | … | Now Isakdje on the Danube, Ilistria. Akja-Kirmén, Bulgaria … | 65 | … | 60 |… | Now Akerman at the mouth of the Dni- ester. Karkar, in the Ag country | 65 | 80 | 60 | … | Inthe interior of the Crimea, now called . Tchoufont-kalé or fortress of the Jews

en

THE SEVENTH CLIMATE.

103 ane

Loner {| Latt- TUDE. TUDE. Names. Nores. D. | M. | D. | M. from a colony of Caryate Jews, near the . Chédir Dégh mountain. Reinand, II, 819. Kaf§&, port in the Crimea 67| 60| 60; … |The ancient Theodosia, a colony of the

Solghat, vis., Kirim wu

Tirnan, in the Ulik (Valak) country

Bulér, 4. ¢., Balghéronthe| 90) … shores of the Itil Sea (Caspian)

Avak, a port on the Seaof| 76 Azak

Sardi, capital of the Bara-| 88] … keh country

Alakak, in the Saraéi coun-| 86} … try

© Nah&d? Aral Sea ses

Middle of the lake, the source of the Oxus

67} 80] 50] …

Milesians, v. Ibn Batdtah, II, 357.

67| 10) 60, 10] That is, that the name of the coantry

Kirim was also given to Solgh&t which Abulfeda calls the capital of the Crimea and bearing ‘also its name, so that when the word Kirim is used by itself, it signifies Solghat It still bears the name of Eski Kirym, Reinaud, n. p. 320, v. Ibn Batdtah, II, 354. Ternovo or Ternovaia in Wallachia.

oe

60} 30/ The actual position of this town was on the W. bank of the Volga, 135 versts, S. of Kasan. From the faot of coins having been found bearing the name of

• Bolgér-aljadid or New Bulghar the existence of two towns has been suppos- ed, and Erdmann professor of O. Lan- guages in,the Univ. of Kagan, proposes or establishes a distinction between Bolar and Bulghér. Ibn Batiéteh passed three days in the town, II, 399.

48] … | Azof at the mouth of the Don.

48] … | Ibn Batitah visited this town from As-

trakhan (II 446). The town was called Sera Barakah, the capital of Sultan Uzbec. This name is also given to the Prince by Abulf. The town stands on an E. branch of the Volga where the Tsarewka and Soloonka streams join that river. It was destroyed by Tamerlane in 1403. See Reinaud’s notes and re- ferences on this name, II, 323. The lat. is that of Paris.

49} 65] On the W. bank of the Volga between - Sarai and Bulér a6 16 marches from each. The horde of the Tartar prince of Barakah advances as far as this, but does not pass beyond, Abulf.

This is either Sarikol on the Pamir table- land, the source of the northern Oxus which Wood discovered on 12th Fe- bruary 1838, or Barkat Yasin, the source of the southern branch traced in 1868, by the Mirza an employe in the G. T. §. It is doubtfal which of

these two should rank as the chief source of the Oxus.

104 THE SEVENTH CLIMATE.

NAMES. Notes.

Bajnoh -? Torkistén 0.2/0. |… | 0. | os - Siklab wc | ce | ccc | ove | eee | Slavonia, The Suklab peninsula

lial! 55>. Reinand considers to

comprise the country between the Oxus and Dnieper, but Norway, Sweden and Finland are included on it by Abulfeda, IT, 314. Mushkah, inthe Slav “|… |… |… |… [Ibn Sayd gives the Lon. 43°, Lat. 58°, country on the sea 20’. This country is also placed by Kazwinion the shore of the ocean, pat it is probable, as Reinaud supposes, that Moscow is intended, its real posi- tion being unknown.

Tabr ? eset levee, | Seen [lees | dese

Kalak ? Pend bree errsa faecae Rroe Snrikirmdén, Bulghér and]… |… | … | … | Lon. 55° Lat. 5°, east of Akerman, five Tork country days’ march of Solghat, Abulf. Sarou or Sari Kirm4n is the Tartar name of the old town of Kherson, the cradle of Russian Christianity. Its runing still called by the same name, are near

. Sebastopol.

Jabalk, extreme W. of | . |… |… | — | Jabalka and Jabuls& are mythical cities Mauritania placed at opposite sides of the

mountain of Kiif which is said to en- circle the earth, but Jabulké is gene- rally placed at the extreme E and Jabulsi to the W. They are employed in a religious sense to signify the first stages of 2 contemplative life, v. Burhan i Kati or Vuller’s Lex. and Yakut, also

• Tabari Chron, pp. 27, 36, I.

Shore of the Ocean oe | 10… | 84) ..

Mari Kirman ? see | ocee | one | one | o | Probably Sari Kirmén

Sudak, on the Enxine …] … |… |… | eo | Lon. 56° Lat. 51° A town in the Cri-

mea, © rival to Kufa in trade; opposite

Samsdn in Asia Minor, Abulf. now Novo

Shudak. Islands of Urdujard ?…| … |… |… | - {In some MS, Radjard.

• Badan ? eve | coe | ce | oe $3 Kani coe | see | nee | eee | eee | Probably miscript for Thule. The Shet- lands.

Nihanah ? on the Ocean| … |… } …

Taniah, by some said to| … |… |… be on the Ocean, by others rising above the Ocean

Bor, a city near the re- gions of darkness,

Cupola of the earth see} DO ed ves] Ge

Middle of the oixounérn …) 90) | o.. |…

Middle of the sea of sus | vse | eee | ee | Already preceded. Perhaps Marmora, Manus ?

Extreme of the country! 36! 20] 51) 20) Brittany or Armorica, according to Rei- of Barkaényah ’ nand is here intended and Ibn Sayd’s

THE SEVENTH CLIMATE.

105:

NaMes oF PLACES. Notes. D. | M.| p. | af. languago reproduces that of tho text, ‘the extreme of the Bretagne country’ which he places at Lon. 9°, Lat. 50°, 30’. Mouths of the Tindnis …| 36] 655! 62! 50] Preceded, for Tananis, read Tanais. ” Taménish 37]… | 54 1) Lon. almost illegible. It is probably a ! repetition of the above. Locality on the Nid Natis} 37) 65! 55] … | Preceded ; corruption of Minitash, (Patus Meeotis. Villages called Nablis … 5] 45) … | .. | Deg. of Lon. and Lat. illegible. Country adjucent to Lessor} 18} ..,.! 68} … Britain : Middle of Great Britain…; 17! 20] 56] … i Lesser Britain 29… | 61]… Extreme point of Lesser] 29 . 62 Britain e Islands called Andda 29) . 6 | … | In some MS. Aluh or Alwah, ¥9/, i » Thule 20]… | 63) 2… Afam, in tho Slav country! 64)… {…] 2. Parts of the Slav country]… |… |… |… Uninhabited adel wees] Meas A seco Ecos Extroemest point of the]… |… | 90}…

world; here allthe Zodia- cal signg rise and set

To FIND THE Distances or Puaces.}

The longitude and latitude of the given places are ascertained. ‘The excess difference between cach is multiplied into itself and the products which are called squares (for the square of a number is that number

ar SU erent peer rhe

1 In his XXI Chap. of the Indica, Albirdui refers to several of his pubtica- tions in which the method of finding the distances has been worked out. These are not fopentoa but he gives the Calculation of the defdntara i. @, differ- ence between the places according to the Hindu method‘as reported by Alfaziri, in his Canon, viz., “ Add together the Squares of the sines of the latitudes of the two places and take the root of the 8um. This root is the portio. Further square the differonce of these two gincs And add it to the portio, Multiply tho

14

sum by 8 and divide the product by 377. The quotient is the distance betweon the two placos according to a rough oaleu- lation. On this Albiruni remarks, “ This method is found in the astronomical books of the Hindus, in conformity with the account of Alfazdri save in one parti- calars. Tho here-mentioned yortio is the root of the difference between the squares of the sines of the two latitudes not the sum of their squares.” I do not find the calculation montioned by Abul Faz, of this astronomor.

106 SINGULAR RESULTS ARISING FROM ACCIDENT OF LOCATION. . °

multiplied by itself) are set down and the two squares added together and their square root extracted. This root is then multiplied into 56% Karoh which is the extent of a degree according to the moderns, or into 663 which is the degree according to the ancients, and the product is the distance of the’ two places from each other. As long as a variation in the extent of longitudes and latitudes arises, the excess is multiplied proportionately and the result ascertained; where the longitudes and latitudes are equal, the rule does not hold good. This distance is calculated on the straight line, but some discrepancy will occur from the curve in direction. Abu Raihan Birini has calculated this approximately and added a fifth of the result found.

Srngutsr RESULTS ARISING FROM ACCIDENT OF LOCATION.

At the equator all the stars rise and set and the periods of both are equal. Night and day are constant in twelve hours each, and the move- ment of the celestial sphere is circular. In the first of Aries and Libra the sun is in the zenith and casts two shadows, and at these two periods where the temperature is equable over the greater part of the olxovpévy, at the equator the heat is excessive and the gnomon has no shadow. When the sun passes the first of Aries and inclines to the north, the shadow is thrown to the south, and when he passes the first of Libra and moves southwards, the shadow is cast to the north. The year has six seasons. Two summers, from the Ist° of Aries to the 15th° of Taurus, and from the 1st° of Libra to the 15th° of Scorpio; two winters, from the lst° of Cancer to the 15th° of Leo, and from the 1st° of Capricorn, to the 15th° of Aquarius. At the change of the Sun into Cancer, the temperature rises in the climatic zones inclined from the equator, whereas at the equator it is the beginning of winter. It has also two springs, from the 16th° of Leo to the end of Virgo, and from the 16th° of Aquarius to the end of Pisces; and two au- tumns, from the 16th° of Taurus to the end of the Gemini and from the 16th of Scorpio to the end of Sagittarius. Avicenna and some learned men maintain that the equator is the most equable in temperature of all coun- trios, because the seasons of cold and heat follow in close aitecession and Fakhr-Razi! and another

the sun does not remain long in the zenith.

—_—

1 Muhammad Ibn Zakariyyé ar Razi is known in the Schools of Mudicine of the middle ages as Rasis, Rhazes or Rhazis, and accused of having become a Pyrrho- dion from misunderstanding the teach- ing of Aristotle, D’Herbelot says that he had the reputation of a great philo-

sopher and being as distinguished in Chemistry and Astronomy as in Medicine, but the wit of the envious asserted that he was an indifferent chemist since he could not cure his own blindness, and a worthless astronomer since be could not foresee the misfortunes that befell him.

‘SINGULAR RESULTS RISING FROM ACCIDENT OF LOCATION. 107

schoo! select the fourth climate and say that “although the sun’s stay in the “zénith is but for a short period, on the other hand he is never more remote than 23 degrees and a fraction, and we observe that in places where the greatest altitude of the sun is less than its altitude at the equator, as for instance at Khwarizm, where his altitude on the first of Cancer is 71° which is 5° lower than his altitude at the equator, the people are much inconvenienced by the heat, while at the equator it is the cold season. But as the altitude there is 5° greater, it follows that the winter of the equator should be hotter than the summer of Khwarizm; what then would its summer be? And the colour and appearance of the Ethiopians who are near the zone of the equator support this view.” The partisans of each school, maintain their several opinions at considerable length. The true resolution is this, that equability in the sense of approximate similarity of Conditions is more apparent at the equator, and great heat on account of this assimilation, is to a certain extent unfelt, because the sensations caused by physical impressions succeeding each other rapidly have less force, while sensations directly antagonistic are more perceptible though disre- garded in view of the equality in the constant proportions of heat and cold. In the first mentioned sense, therefore, Avicenna is correct, while in the latter, the opinion of Ar Riziis tenable. Every place which has not the equinoctial and its pole directly in the zenith is accounted among climatic zones inclined from the equator, and these are specially differentiated in five classes. The first is in a latitude less than the greatest declination of the Sun from the equator: the latitude of the second is equal to the greatest declination: that of the third is greater than the declination but less than its complement measured from the equator: that of the fourth is equal to

He is the reputed author of many works in Chemistry and Medicine, and of a commentary on Aristotle. The catalogue is noticed by Sachaz, 1], 342, Albirdni, Indica. He died under the reign of Al Muktadir in 4, H. 310. The works of Rasis translated into Latin or French Were accounted among the trensures of the library belonging to the faculty of Medicine in Paris in the fifteenth cen- tury. In 1471 Lonis the eleventh of France borrowed them from that learned body and deposited in pledge a qnantity of valuable plate and was moreover, compelled to procure a nobleman to join with him as surety ina deed by which he

bound himself to return them under great forfeiture ; v. Robertson’s Hist. Charles V. Notes to Sec. I. But this fictitious valne was dno to the extromo rarity and therefore high price of books in general and not to the merit of the author. Ilis name occurs also among the books which Chancer’s Doctor of Physicke is gaid to have studied.

Well knew he the old Esculapins.

And Dioscorides and eke Rnfas.

Old Hippocrates, Haly, and Galen.

Serapyon, Razis, and Avycen.

Averrois, Damascien, Constantyn.

Bernard, and Gatesden and Gilbertyn.

Prolog. Cant, Tales:

108 SINGULAR RESULTS ARISING FROM ACCIDENT OF LOCATION.

the complement: that of the fifth is greater than the complement but less than 90°. In the first, the sun is twice in the zenith, from the 1st of Aries to Cancer and from the lst of Cancer to Libra and casts here also two shadows. In tho second he is only once in the zenith, in Cancer. Here and in the remaining zones where the sun does not culminate, the shadow is thrown to the north. At the spot where the pole of the equinoctial is directly perpendicular it is 90° and the movement of the celestial sphere is like a mill. The year there forms a nycthemeron as has already been explained. There is no doubt that the fabled darkness! which is the tradi- tion of the vulgar, refers to the gloom of these nights. The points of the east, west, north and south are not here distinguishable.

Some divide the oixovzévy into three parts. The first is from the equator to.a position the latitude of which is equal to the greatest declina- tion of the sun from the equator. The inhabitants of this region are called Suddn (blacks), because the sun shining directly above them, they are coloured by its rays and their hair is curly. Those who dwell proximate to the equa- tor are called Zingis.? They are absolutely black and scarce resemble human beings. Those who live near the region of the greatest declination, are less swarthy and being of moderate stature and equable disposition, are more of a class with the natives of Hindustan, and Yemen and some of the Mauri- tanian Arabs. The second is the region of which the latitude extends from the greatest declination to a quarter parallel with the Great Bear.2 The colour of its inhabitants is inclined to fairness and as the sun does not shine perpendicularly above them and yet is never far removed, their bodies are fashioned in. a naturally-adjusted mean, ‘as the Chinese, the Turks, and the people of Khurasdn, Irak, Persia and Syria. Of this race, those who dwell nearest to the south have a subtler intellect because they are nearer the zodiac and the orbits of the five planets, while those are of a more powerful build who inhabit the regions to the west. Proximity to the east produces a softness of frame and by such as these great deeds are never accomplished. The third region is parallel with the orbit of the

a

1 It ia hero that eastern fable locates the fountain of the water of life, which the as mythical prophet, saint, or bard al Khidr is said to have discovered and tastod, and received his immortality. He is alluded to in the 18th Chapter of the Koran in the adventure with Moses from which may be traced the story of Par- nell’s Hermit.

% The inhabitants of Zanguebar, includ-

ing the “ Zingis” of Ptolemy near the entrance of the Red Sea and a large por- tion of inner Africa, v. Lane. Lex.

® According to the Vishntt Dharma, the arbit of the Great Bear lies under the pole: under it the orbit of Saturn: then that of Jupiter: next, Mars, the San, Venus, Mercury and the Moon. They rotate towards the east like « mill in a uniform motion peculiar to each star,

SINGULAR RESULTS ARISING FROM ACCIDENT OF LOCATION. 109

Great Bear such as the country of the Sclavonians and Russians, and as it is distant from the Zodiac and little affected by the heat of the sun, the cold impels to hardihood, moisture is predominant, and natural living pro- ducts do not mature. Their colour is fair, their hair red and worn long, their bodies sleek, their temper fierce and their disposition inclined to evil. Hermes,! the most celebrated of the name, divides the earth into seven parts analogous with the seven spheres, one within the other. The first towards the south is the continent of India: the second, Arabia, Yemen, and Abyssinia: the third, Eeypt, Syria and Mauritania: the fourth, Persia: the fifth, the Greeks, Sclavonians, Franks: the sixth, the Turks and the Khazars: the seventh, China, Khotan and Tibbet.

It is said that Noah apportioned the length of the habitable globe into three lots. The southern he gave to Ham, and this is the country of the blacks and the Arabs: the northern to Japhet, where the fair-skinned, ruddy faced races dwell: the middle portion was assigned to Shem, in- habited by the wheat-coloured people. Feridtin divided the breadth of his dominions into three parts; the eastern he gave to Tur: the western to Salm and the intermediate tract to Iraj. “Some of the Greeks have made two sections of the habitable earth latitudinally from Egypt. The eastern they call Asia, the western which is the Mediterranean Sea, they subdivide into two, that on the south being named Libya, the country of the negroes, and that on the north Europe* where dwell the white and

some moving rapidly, others slowly. Al- hirtini criticises this statement with his usual intelligence. See Indica. Cap. XXVIT, Sachan, p. 288.

1 The Hermotic books are said by Fubriciug to be the forgeries of a Jow or of a semi-Platonic semi-Christian writer of about the 2nd century after Christ. Hermes Trismegistus himself is o fiction of the Neo Platonists and was the off- Spring of the Oriental and Hellenic phi- losophies. He was the supposed mystic author of all knowledge and the author, on the authortty of Manetho, of 36,525 books. As this number corresponds with the total number of years of Egyp- tion Chronology in the “ Ancient Obro- nicle,” obtained by multiplying the 1461 years of the Canicular Cycle by 25, the coincidence is suggestive that the

computation of the books was of late date. Bochart understands by books, lines, and Hornins, pages of papyrus. Galen regarded the Hermetical books of astrological botany as the work of an impostor. See Sir G Lewis. Astron. of the Anc. His principal works pablished under this name are given in the class Dict. of Dr. W. Smith.

& This tripartite division into Europe Asia and Libya was unknown to Homer, and the earliest allusions to it are found in the writers of the Ist half of the 5th century B. C., viz. Aeschylus and Pindar and the logographers Hecatwus and Pherecydes; v. Art Asia, Smith C. D. Herodotas discusses it in Melpomene (42) with some wonder at the charactor of the division.

110 SINGULAR RESULTS ARISING FROM ACCIDENT OF LOCATION.

raddy-complexioned races. Bisécting Asia from the angle between the east and north transversely in a southerly direction, they divide it into two segments, of which the inner is the less and the outer the greater. The middle is called Asia Minor and comprises the country of Iréu, Hijéz, Yemen and Khurisin. The outer is Asia Major, comprising China,! India and Sind. Some say that Hindu philosophers partition the habitable earth into a diagram of nine parts, viz., the south (dahkhin) the Arabian country; the north (uftar), that of the Turks; the east, (pérab), China; the west, (pachchim), Egypt and Barbary; the north-east (ésén), Khata and Khotan; the north-west (biéyab), the Greeks and Franks ; the south- west (nairit) the country of the Copts and Berbers, Africa and Spain. The middle country was called Madhya-desa2 But this account is not found in

this order in any Sanskrit work nor is it thus handed down by any of the learned of this country.

Ocupste dv rév d:oupicdytay Kat Brerdy- Iberia, Albania, Armenia, ‘Syria,

voy AtBbny te xal ’Aciny «al Eipdxny’ ob ylp cyixpd 7 d:aPépoven abrewy dort. whuet pay yap nop’ duporépas wapher 4 Edpdan’ eBpeos B& wep: 085% cunBarday atin Palveral pos elvat.

1 This partition into A. Major and A. Minor was not made, according to a writer in the Ci. Dic. till the 4th cen- tary of ourera. Asia Major (A. 4 ueydan) was part of the continent BE. of the Tannia, the Euxine, an imaginary line drawn from the Eaxine at ‘I’rebizond to the Gulf of Isaus and the Mediterranean. Itincladed Sarmatia Asiatican, with all the Scythian tribes to the E., Colchis,

Arabia, Babylonia, Mesopotamia, Assy- ria, Media, Susiana, Persis, Ariana, Dyrcania, Margiana, Bactriana, Sogdi- ana, India, China. .Asin Minor (A. 4 upd, Anatolia) was the peninsula on the extreme W. of Asia, bounded by the Enuxine, Hgean and Mediterranean.

3 He has omitted the S. E. ‘The dia- gram will be found in Albirdni’s Indica Ch. XXXIX, 2€2, Sachau, with the authorities. Abul Fazl’s ill-digested knowledge is heaped up indiscriminately without order or method and without heed or conscionsneas of the worthless- Tess of so mach of it.

THE 8CALE OF NOTATION, 28

Tue Scare or Notation.

Units up to 9 ae we $05 Ekam. 10 » 100… eee S25 Daéa. 100 » 1000 … See Ses Sata. 1,000 , d&. … ts rest Sahasra.

10,000 ,, d&. … 3a es Aynuta. 100,000 aes aes se a Laksh vulg. lakh. 1,000,000 … ae te = Prenat. 10,0€0,000 .. 0s eS Koti, valg. Kror. 100,000,000… use) wee:~Ss Arruda.

a 1,000,000,000 ww wae Aja.

£0,000,000,000 sae ose ws Kharba. 100,000,000,000 … 3… …. ~~ Nikharba. 1,000,000,000,000 … ies wes Mahipadma. 10,000,000,000,000 … is isi Sanka. 100,000,000,000,000 ae ai Jaladhi. 1,000,000,000,000,000 ee ses Madhya. 10,000,000,000,000,000_… aa Antya. 100,000,060,000,000,000 … a Parardha.

The Brahmans have not more than eighteen places of notation, the first being units, kam, and the rest proceeding by multiples of ten. All above units have a separate designation as above noted, thus differing from the Greek compounds of notation. An intervening number of this scale, for instance, fifteen, is included in the second, one hundred and twelve, in the third place, and soon! And further by the addition of eleven places to the eighteen, they reckon up to twenty-nine places and em- ploying the terms of six of the series, the remainder are suffixed as com- pounds, as will be seen from what follows. Thus: Tens, hundreds, thousands, lakhs, tens of lakhs, krors; krors tens, hundreds, thousands, tens of thou- sands, lakhs, tens of lakhs, kroys of krors; krors of krors tens, hundreds, thousands, tens of thousands—nineteen places from the unit’s place, and this illustrates the foregoing description. Krors of krors tens of thousands is 1,000,000,000,000,000,000, up to nine tens of thousands of krors of krors,

se NS eee ne Ne se eT

1 Read the 16th Chapter of Albirdni’s j tens, hundreds, thousands, &. Sachan has inadvertently reversed this order.

He says some maintain a 19th order Albirdui adds that Dasd sahasra, and called Bhiri. According to others the Dasd laksha are used for the 5th and 7th limit of reckoning is kofi and starting orders respectively, as the terms Ayuta from koti the succession would be koti, and Prayuta are rarely employed.

India ia connection with this reckoning,

112 - RHE SCALE OF NATION.

and in a descending scale, nine thensand krors of krors and nine hundred so on to nine. Again, krogs of krors lakhs, tens of Irrors of kreys of takhs, lsvoys of krors of kvors; krors of krors of lwors tens, hundreds, thousands, tens of thousands, lakhs, tens of lakhs, tixors of krors of kwors of krors,! which series proceeds in the manner aboye given.

The Greeks have their scale of aotation from one to nine andthe reeurring ternary series they call a cycle. Thus from one te nine are units, from ten te ninety, tens, and from ene hundred to nine hundred, hundreds. This is termed the first eycle. From one thousand’ to nine thousand are units of thousands, frem ten thousand to ninety thousand. are tens of thousands, and fom one hundred theusand to nine hundred thousand are hundweds of thousands. This they call the second cycle. Amd thus at the end of each cycle the word “thousands” is‘ added, as for instance, the third eycle begins with units of thousands of thousands, ¢, ¢, a thousand thousand, followed by tens of thousands of thousands, 7. ¢., ten thousand thousand up to ninety thousand thousand. Next fellows hundyeds of thousands of thousands, 7. ¢., a hundred thousand thousand. The begin- ning of the fourth cycle is units of thousands of thousands ef theusands, and so on throughout the xemainder of the series. The desiguations in ali ore but three, viz., tens, hundyeds, thousands, and as to what is said im ancient books of this system being borrowed from the Greeks, the version above given certainly does not support it.

1 20, 000, 000;000;000,000;000;000;000;000. ‘Tiventy-nine places from the units,

THE QUARTERS OF THE GLOBE. 113

THe Qoarrers or THE GLOBE.

The Hindus term a quarter disé and also dig! and of these they reckon ten. Each of them they consider to be under a tutelary spirit whom they name Dig-pala as will appear in the following table :—

Sanskrit name of

qoarten English. Regent. Parva .. | Fast … | Indra. Agni … | South-east | Agnif Dakshina South .. | Yama. Nairrita … | South-west w. | Nairrita. Pasgchima .. | West … | Varuna. Vayaviya … | North-west we | Vayu. Vitara, .. | North .. | Kuvera. Véana, … | North-east w | [Sdna. Urddhva … | Above … | Brahma. Adbah .. | Below … | Naga.

Some assign a quarter to the interval between the upper and lower regions and thus reckon eleven. The regent of this is Rudra.

1 Hind. fea from fag, Sansk. fam.

% Indra is the Indian Jupiter ; in Sansk. Dyaush-pitar, or that one among the many Jupiters which personified the firmament and whose epithets, in Sans- krit, are according to Sir W. Jones, the same with those of the Jove of Ennius as expressed in the line.

Aspice hoc sublime candens quem invocant omnes Jovem.

Agui is the god of fire, and one of the most ancient objects of Hindu worship who answers to the Vulcan of Egypt. Yama in the Vedas is the god of the dead with whom the departed spirits dwell. The 8. W. regent is a demon or Raékshasa. Varuna is one of the oldest vedic deities, and like its derivative O’pavés a personification of the all-en- compagsing sky. The name also designua-

tes one of the lunar mansions. The god of the air, the Hinda Eolus is represented by Vayn and is associated in the Vedas with Indra, riding in the same car. Kavera, as living in the shades and being the god of wealth; unites the characteristics of Pluto and Plutus. Isina is a name of Siva or of one of his manifestations. The serpent worshipping Nagas may boast of their connection with or descent from this regent of the nether world. I shall not pursue the legend of their origin and refer the reader for the more particular history of the above names, among namereus sources of information, to Sir W. Jones’ Essay on the Gods of India and Greece, to Dowson’s Dict. of Linda Mythology, and to Lassen, Indisch Alterthum,

NS ee

15

ANIMAL LIFE, Il4

ANIMAL LIFE.

This subject cannot be altogether omitted and shall be cursorily touched upon. In what relates to man, somewhat has already been sct down. In distinguishing the finer shades observable in the measure of divergence in the dispositions of men in this region of the globe, investiga- tion points to little discovery. Judges of character, generally, when consi- dering the Hindu people, incline to the ancieut opinion that each of them is a presentment of the race contained in the individual. One, from the eminence of his virtues will be beyond price; another will be dear at the basest coin. If regarded with the eyes of impartiality, the sincerely devout of this country are unlike the seckers of God in other lands and in warring with interior spiritual. foes that wear the guise of friends, they are rarely to be matched. Their knowledge of affairs, capacity in execution, reckless- ness of ,valonr, fidelity, especially in times of difficulty, their devoted attachment and disinterested service, and other eminent good qualities are beyond measure great. And yet there are many obdurate and pitiless spirits, devoid of gentle courtesy who for the merest trifle will rise to the shedding of blood, and marvellous are the tales told of these ravening fiends in the guise of angels.

The Hindu philosophers reckon four states of auspiciousness which they term varpa.t 1. Bréhmana. . 2 Kshatriya vulgarly, Khatri. 3. Vaisya vulgarly Bais. 4. S’édra, vulgarly sédra. Other than these are termed Mlechchha. At the creation of the world the first of these classes was pro- duced from the mouth of Brahma, a brief account of whom has already been given: the second, from his arms; the third, from his thigh and the fourth from his feet; the fifth from the cow Kédmadhenu,? the name of Miechcha being employed to designate them.

1 The term in its primitive meaning eastes are carofally stated by Muir

signifies ‘colour. the Aryans from the vorth priding themselves on their fair complexion, in contradistinction to the ‘black skin’ typical of the indigenous races. The term subsequently was ap- plied to caste. The various theories oritival and legendary of the origin of

(Sansk. Texts, Vol. I.) who may be com- pared with Lassen, I. 794.

& The granter of desires,’ said to have been produced at the churning of the ocean, bolonging to the sage Vasishtha. Called also Kama-duh, Savalé and Sura- bhi. Dowson.

ANIMAL WIFE. 118

The Brahmans have six recognised duties. 1. The study of the Vedas and other sciences. 2. The instruction of others (in the sacred texts). 3. The performance of the Jag, that is oblation of money and kind to the Devatas. 4. Inciting others to the same. 5. Giving presents. 6. Recoiv- ing presents.

Of these six the Kshatriya must perfom three, 1. Perusing the holy texts. 2. The performance of the Jag. 3. Giving presents. Further they must, 1. minister to Brahmans. 2. Control the administration of worldly government and receive the reward thereof. 3. Protect religion. 4. Exact fines for delinquency and observe adequate measure therein. 5. Punish in proportion fo the offence. 6. Aimass wealth and duly expend it. 7. Supervise the management of elephants, horses, and cattle and the functions of ministerial subordinates. 8. Levy war on due occa- sion. 9. Neveraskanalms. 10. Favour the meritorious and the like.

The Vaisya also must perform the same three duties of the Brahman, and in addition must occupy himself in: 1. Service. 2. Agriculture. 3. Trade. 4. The cave of cattle. 5. The carrying of loads.

From birth to the time of investiture with the sacred thread, these, ten duties may be performed by all the three castes above-mentioned.

The Sddra is incapable of any other privilege than to serve these three castes,! wear their cast-off garments and eat their leavings. “He may be a painter, goldsmith, blacksmith, carpenter, and trade in salt, honey, milk, butter-milk, clarified butter and grain.

Those of the fifth class, are reckoned as beyond the pale of religion, like infidels, Jews and the like. By the inter-marriages of these, sixteen other classes are formed. The son of Brahman parents is acknowledged as a Brahman. If the mother be a Kshatriya, (the father being a Brahman) the progeny is called Mdurdhavasikta. If the mother be a Vaigya, the son is named Ambastha and if a Sidra girl, Nishéda. If the father and mother are both Kshatriya, the progeny is Kshatriya. If the mother be a Brahman, (and the father a Kshatriya) the son is called Yéta. If the mother be a Vaisya, the sun is Mahisya, If the mother bea Sidra, the pro-

1 See these duties in tho Institutes of Manu, 1, 88, and ff., p. 12, Barnell.

&% The text has Antaf. The term I have employed is taken from the ordinances of Manu and is found in the texts of Sir W. Jones and of Burnell Theso names an} many other variations of the progeny of intor-marviages will be found in the tenth chapter of the Institutes of Manu. The

managomontof horses and driving wagons, is therein snid to be the occupation of Sdtas; tho practice of medicine that of Ambasthas ; attendance on women, that of Vaidehakas; trade that of Mégadhas ; killing fish that of Nishidas; carpentry of Ayogavas. Catching and killing animals that live in holes, is the ocenpntion of Kgsattars, Ugras, and Pakkagas,

116 ANIMAL LIFE.

geny is Ugra. If both parents be Vaigya, the progeny is Vaiéya. If the mother be a Brahman, (which is illicit) the progeny is Vaideha but if she be a Kshatriya, which also is regarded as improper, he is Mégadha. From the Vaisya by a Sddra mother is produced a Karana. When both parents are Sidra, the progeny is Sidra. If the mother be a Brahman, the pro- geny is Chandila. If she be a Kshatriya, it is called Chattdé.’ From a Sddra by a Vaisya girl is produced the Ayogava.

In the same away still further ramifications are formed, each with , different customs and modes of worship and each with infinite distinctions of habitation, profession, and rank of ancestry that defy computation.

The Brahmans, in regard to the study of the Vedas, are of four classes, and each occupies himself with the perusal of a special sacred work.2 There are twenty ways of reading the Rigveda; the Yajurveda has eighty-six ; the Sdémaveda, one thousand, and the Atharvaveda, five, and their several disciples fall into distinct categories. There may be also ten distinctions of Brahmans, according to their ‘occupations. 1. Deva. 2. Muni. 3. Dvi-ja. 4, Raji. 5. Vaigya. 6. Sidra. 7. Biddilaka. 8. Pagu. 9. Mlechchha. 10. Chandala.

The first named perform the Hom® for themselves, not for others, and give presents, but do not receive them, and learn, but do not teach. The second perform the Hom for others as well as for themselves and receive gifts and teach. The third class* have twelve distinctive notes. The six aforesaid and 7. Meekness. 8. Restraint of the five senses from things unlawful. 9. Unshrinking from austerities. 10. Attachment to the precepts of the Vedas. 11. Taking no life. 12. Attributing the posses- sion of nothing to themselves. The fourth class perform the same offices

1 According to Burnell, (X. 806) the term is Ksattar, Sir W. Jones writeg Cshattri. Muir (Sans. Texts, I. 174), Kshattri.

9 According to Albirdni, Vyasa divided the Veda into the four parts named be- low, and to each of his four pupils, he tanght & separate Veda to be learnt by heart. They are enumerated in the same order as the four parts of the Veda:

of sacrifice.

4 The three castes of the Brahman, Kshatriya and Vaisya, were called, dvt-ja, twice-born, from their title to investiture with the sacred thread which literally constitutes the second birth, but the term is particularly applied to the Brah- mans, who maintain that their caste alone remains, the other three having beén lost or degraded and it is generally ao–

Paila, VaiSampayana, Jaimini, Sumante.

8 This oblation consists in casting clarified butter, &c., into the sacred fire as an offering to the gods, with invoca- tions and prayers according to the object

cepted that the pure Kshatriya or Vaisya does not now exist. The intercourse and inter-marriage of various castes have produced the mixed castes called Varna- Sankara, see Dowson, 336.

ANIMAL LIFE. M7

as the Kshatriya. The fifth, those of the Vaisya. The sixth, those of the Sidra. The seventh class have the characteristic of cats,’ go from door to door and mix with high and low. The eighth, like brutes® know not good from evil, The ninth follow the practices of the Mlechchhas (barbarians or non-Aryans), and the tenth are low outcasts and eat carrion.

The Kshatriya form two races, the Sdrajbans¢ (Solar dynasty) and the Somabansi (Lunar dynasty). The first mentioned are descendants of the Sun. It is said that by the volition of Brahma, Martchi3 was created, who begot Kasyapa (Muni), from whom the Sun (Vivasvéin or Surya) sprung. From him was produced Vaivaswata from whose nose Ikshiwaku came forth by a sneeze and from him the succeeding generations proceeded. Three princes of this race ruled the world and extended their dominion over the seven climes. These were Raji Sagara,’ Rijé Khatwainga, and Rajé Raghu.

–The second race is descended trom the Moon, From Brahma was orn Atri, from whose right eye came forth the Moon (Soma) who pégor™ fercury (Budha) and from him proceeded the succeeding generations. wo princes of this race held universal sway, namely, Raja Yudhisthira nd Raja Sotdnika. There are more than five hundred tribes of the shatriyas of whom fifty-two are preeminently distinguished and twelve re of considerable importance. At the present day, no trace of the true shatriya exists. Some of their descendants, abandoning the profession f arms, have taken to other occupations and this class is known to the orld by this name. Another body of them adopting the sword:as their calling are designated Rajputs, and are divided into thousands of septs. I record the names of a few of the most renowned, that are now in His

Majesty’s service.

1. The Rathor; there are several tribes of this clan in service.

They number sixty thousand cavalry® and two hundred thousand infa a

1 The Biddlaka, from Sansk fasta o known as Raghuban$i or Rag cat. from whom Rima Chandra

% Tho Pasu fom Sansk. yyy a quad- and whose epic the Raghu-v; cantos was sung by Kalidg was a king of Ayodhyé Sumati was delivered of a ing 60,000 seeds which }

ruped. 3 Abul Fazl’s names and translitera- tidns are incoifect. I substitute the true

readings of the names as far as I am able : to discover them. Bad erowe The 20%)

• Notices of these threo legendary shen on. andi hee4 princes will be found in Dowson. After each with a nurse 4 Raghn the line practically losos its they were all able original name of the Strajbansi and is 5 See Vol. I, p

118 ‘ ANIMAL LIFE.

2. The Chauhdn are divided into several! branches, viz., Singira, Khichi, Deora, Hadé, and Narbin. The troops of the clan number fifty thousand cavalry and two handred thousand infantry. 3. The Paawar. In ancient ’ times, of this tribe was the royal dynasty in Hindustdin, and it numbered many clansmen. At the present time their force consists of twelve thousand cavalry and sixty thousand foot. 4. The Jadon. Fifty-thousand cavalry ‘and two hundred thousand foot. 5. Bhati. 6. Jarejah. 7. Janthah, { to whi lan the Khanzddahs of_Mewat belong. 7. Gehlét. Twenty “thousand cavalry and three hundred thousand foot. 8. Sesodia. 9. Chandrawat. 10. The Kachhwdhah, who are celebrated among the Rij- puts, and number twenty thousand cavalry, and one hundred thousand infantry. 11. The Solankhi. Thirty thousand cavalry and one hundred thousand infantry. 12. Parihdra. 13. Tonwar, for a time the sovereign-

ty of this country rested in this tribe. They number ten thousand horse and twenty five thousand foot cmstel a

ita) and ,

z adgiajar. Ten thows: vy orty thousand foot. Each of these tribes claims an ancestry trace back to hundreds of thousands of years, a source of splendid pride to the intelligent judgment and is indeed a theme far above the level of an idle tale to distract the mind.

The Vaisya and the Sidra are in the same way divided into numer ous branches. For instance, there is one caste of the Vaisyas called Bantk, more commonly termed Baniyd, (grain-merchant). The Persians nam them Bakkdl and of these there are eighty-four divisions.

There-are besides troops of astonishing sorcerers, cunning jugglers, wonder-working magicians, and conjurers of such sleight of hand, performing such extraordinary feats that not the vulgar alone, but the acutest minds are deceived into a belief in their miraculous powers. For instance, one of them will say in broad day-light to one of the specta- “T have just returned from heaven, and having there been assured i honour and probity, I entrust’my wife to your care.” Then placing his charge, he takes a coil of rope of untanned hide, one end of e holds in his hand, and flings the coil‘to such a height that the becomes invisible. By means of this he mounts upgand is lost to tier a little time his limbs one after the other come falling from 1 which the woman, after their national rite, burns herself in he spectators and is consumed to ashes. Ina bifef space of

the Rathor Cavalry four branches, I, Chap. V. The deeds of r its true significa- many of these famons clans are preserved by Tod in his Rajasthan.

names of twenty-

LANGUAGES. 419

time, the man himself reappears and claims his charge. The spectators relate to him what has happened which he affects to disbelieve, and hasten- ing to the house of the person to whom he had entrusted her, calls to his wife from the door. She comes forth, giving thanks for his safety, and leaves the spectators in bewilderment. Again he will cut a man up into forty pieces, and cover him over with a sheet. Then at his summons, the man will appear unhurt and answer for his reality.!

Or, he will place some grains of mustard seed in the palm of his hand, and by some incantation, will make it straight way shoot and bear leaves and fruit. In the same way they will produce mangos and melons out of season. In short, the maryéls of their sorceries, and snake-charming and the like, are beyond expression.

LANGUAGES.

Throughout the wide extent of Hindustan, many are the dialects fhat are spoken, and the diversity of those that do not exclude a common inter- intelligibility are innumerable. Those forms of speech that are not under- stood one of another, are the dialects of Delhi, Bengal, Multin, Marwar, Gujarat, Telingénah,? Marhatta, Karnaitik, Sind, Afghan of Shaél (between

Sind, Kabul, and Kandahar), Beluchistin, and Kashmir,

1 Similar performances are described by [bn Batitah who witnessed them at an entertainment of the Viceroy of Khansa (Kinsay of Polo). ness to similar feats is Edward Melton, an Anglo-Dutch traveller who was pre- sent at a like scene in Batavia in 1670,

Another wit-

where the limbs that feil saccessively Were caught up and cast into a basket. The last fragment was the head and no sooner had it touched the ground than the man who had gathered up the limbs into the basket, turned them all ont topsy turvy. Melton continues as fol- lows: “Then straightway we saw with these eyes, all those limbs creep tegether again, and in short, form a whole man who at once could stand and go just as before without showing the least damage. Never in my life was I so astonished as when I beheld this wonderfal perform- ance and I donbted now no longer that these misguided men did it by the help .

of the Devil”? The Memoirs of the Emperor Jahangir fornish farther testi- mony of similar performances ‘by seven jugglers from Bengal. In one feat, a& man is severed limb from limb and decapitated and reproduced from under a sheet. In the other the Emperor says, ‘They prodaced a chain 50 cubits in length and threw one end of it towards the sky where it remained as if fastened to some thing inthe air. A dog was bronght forward and being placed at the lower extremity of the chain, immediate- ly ran ap and disappeared in the air. In the same manner, a hog, a panther, 8 lion and a tiger were successively sent up end all equally disappeared. Az last they took down the chain aud pat it into @ bag, no one discovering in what way the different animals were made to vanish. Yule’s Marco Polo. Ed. 71, p. 281.

9 See Vol. 1I, pp. 228-80, notes. By

120 FAUNA.

Fauna.

A summary description of the noblest of the animal creation having been given, I proceed to notice the Jower types of animal life.

The Ban-mdnus is an animal like a baboon, dark in colour, and in stature and face resembling a human being and walks on two feet. Although it has no tail, its body is slightly covered with hair. One of these was brought to His Majesty from Bengal which performed the most astonishing antics. Elephants, lions,! leopards, panthers, tigers, bears, wolves and dogs of various breeds, and monkeys, lynxes, hyenas, jackals, foxes, otters, cats, white and tawny and even winged that will fly for a short distance, and other kinds of animals are numerous. Sarddl is the name of an animal smaller than a dog but preys upon lions and other wild beasts. Through the encouragement of His Majesty, the breed of horses is as fine as those of Irak and Arabia. The rhinoceres is a stupendous creature. He is twice the size of a buffalo and much resembles a horse in armour, His feet and hoofs are like those of an elephant, and his tail similar to a buffalo’s, and he has a pastern-joint like a horse. On the point

the Telinginah is meant Telegu, which was called by the Sanskrit writers An- dhra, the ancient name applied at one time to the whole country of Telingfna. Most of the languages enumerated aro but dialects of Hindi. As Mr. Beames states in his introduction to the com- parative Grammar of the modern Aryan Languages, Gujarati is a dialect of the Sauraseni Prakrit, the parent of Hindi. Panjabi is bat an old Hindi dialect. Bengali, perhaps the most modern of the Indian vernaculars, three centuries ago closely resembled the Hindi still spoken in eastern Behér. Oriya is in some respects more like Hindi than Bengali. Sindhi is fandamentally distiact, but with uomistakeable traces of kinship which are far more pronounced in Marathi. I refer the student to this able synopsis of the langaages and literature of Hindu- stan. The place of Sanskrit and the Prakrita in the history of the Indian vernaculars is briefly outlined for the

general reader in Sir W. Hunter’s India, (I. G. IV) with his usual crispness of touch and treatment.

1 Lions are mentioned, according to Lasson, in the oldest Indian writings. They havo now nearly disappeared, ag they have from Persia, Syria, Asia Minor and Macedonia. Alexander found them in the Eastern Panjab. Lassen supposes the tiger to have advanced as the Jion disappeared. The Indian hounds were famous and a Babylonian satrap had ro many that four viilages were specially taxed for their maintenance. They were considered worthy to be presented to Alexander the Great by king Sopcithes. See Lassen’s note on this.

The winged cat is probably the flying squirrel which Mr. Routledge informs me is cailed by the natives urté bills.

Sard6l in Sanskrit signifies a tiger, bat here is perhaps meant some species of wild dog which in packs of 6 or 7 will hunt down the fiercest game.

FAUNA. 121

of his snout he carries a single horn and his hide is so thick that an arrow will not pierce it. Of this, breast-plates and shields and the like are made, and he is bold enough to charge a man on horseback. The black antelope, has two long horns and for beauty and swiftness is unrivalled among his kind, The deer, from which the musk is taken, is larger than the fox, and his coat is rough. He shows two tusks and protuberances in place of horns. They are common in the northern mountains. The Yak approximates to the domestic cow but of its tail is made the kutds! or fringed tassel, and many they join together. There is also the civet cat.

The Shdrak® is an astonishing talker, and listeners would not distin- guish its tones from human speech.

The Alynah’ is twice the size of the Shérak, with glossy black plumage, but with the bill, wattles and tail-coverts yellow. It imitates the human voice and speaks with Great distinctness.

Parrots are of different colours, red, white and green and tall like human beings. At the present time, under His Majesty’s patronage, animals of all kinds from Persia, Turkestan, and Kashmir whether game or other, have been brought together to the wonderment of beholders.

The Kéél,* is like a mynah, jet black with crimson irides and a long tail. Romance sings of its loves as of those of the bulbul. ;

The Papthd,’ is smaller than the K6él, with a shorter and slenderer tail. Its love is chanted in story. It is in full song in the beginning of tho rainy season and has a peculiar note and its plaintive strain is heard

1 See Vol. 11, p. 172, n. 2, Valler dis- tinctly (Lexicon) names the Gao Kutés as the Yak Tibetanas or Bos grunnicns.

8 In Sansk. Sharika, Hind. Shérik, Sarik or Sérak. In Bengal the word is written and pronounced Sdlik and ap- plied to the common Mynah, the Acri- dotheres tristis, which is occasionally a fine talker, | C

8 Enlabes intermedin. Jerdon. The Nepal Hill Mynah, found also in Assam, and about, tha Chittagong tracts, more or less with these characteristics. There are varions species not easily distinguished by the inexpert.

4 Eudynamys Orientalis, Jerdon. The Cuculos according to Linnwus. It is woll-known throughout India. Its name is from its cry of koil-koil which in-

16

creases in volume of sound as it goes on. The female lays its eggs in the nest of the common crow, generally only ono and sometimos destroys the eggs of the crow at the time of depositing her own. The crows appear to be aware of the fact when too lato and often pursue these cuckoos with great fury.

6 Coccystes Melanolencos, Jerdon. Tho pioderested cuckoo. It is found all over India, and js above of a uniform black with no greenish gloss. Jerdon unromantically describes it as very noisy with o high pitched metallic note, which would appear highly calculated to re- open any old wounds or cause a fresh ono. Itis best known in Hinda poetry under the name of Chatak.

122 FAUNA.

oftenest at night, and makes lbve’s unhealed wounds bleed anew. It is from its note that the word piu is taken, which in Hindi signifies ‘ beloved.’

The Héril’ has green plumage with a white bill and crimson ivides, smaller than the ordinary pigeon. It never scttles upon the ground and when it alights to drink, it carries with it a twig which it keeps beneath its feet till its thirst is quenched.

The Baya? is like a wild sparrow but yellow. It is extremely intelli- gent, obedient and docile. It will take small coins from the hand and bring them to its master and will come to a call from a long distance. Its nests are 80 ingeniously constructed as to defy the rivalry of clever arti- ficers.

The astonishing feats which the animals of this country can perform and their beautiful variety of colouring is beyond the power of my inex: perience to describe. Former romancers have related stories in abund- ance of their extraordinary characteristics but the writer of this work men- tions nothing that he has not himself seen or heard from accurate observers,

I write of things within my ken Nor tell o twice-told tale again.

1 Also Hariy4l, the Crocopus Phani- copterus, or Bengal Green Pigeon, (Jerdon). The text is evidently in error, omitting the negative before the word ‘gottles,’ which stultifies the sense of what follows. Gladwin confirms me in this opinion, but whether the fact is so or not, is another point. Jerdon does not allude to it. It is incorrect to say that it is smaller than the ordinary pigeon; the reverse is the case, with regard to this particular species though some kinds, of which there are many, may be and are amaller.

% Plocens baya or common weaver- bird. Its long retort-shaped nest is o familiar sight in India. Jerdon says that if can be tanght to pick up ringa or such like articles dropped down a well or

carry a note on 4 given signal. Mr. Blyth has seen it fire off a miniature cannon and apply the match fivo or six times before the powder ignited, which it finally did with a report lond enough to frighten all the crows in the neighbour- hood, while the little bird romained perched on the gun without moving. In their breeding plumage, the old males have the crown of the herd yellow, the rest of the upper plumage with the wings and tail, dull brown, edged with pale falvous brown; the breast is bright yellow, bat in the younger, pale rusty ; while the females and the males in

winter dress totally want the yellow head, the crown being brown with dark stroaks. :

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

123

Weicuts anp BMrasures.

DMeasures. 6 Atoms! = 1 Marichi. 6 Marichi =1 Khardal, (Brassica nigra). 3 Khardal = 1 Sarshaf, (Brassica juncea). 8 Sarshaf = 1 Barley corn.

4 Barley corns = 1 Surkh (Abrus precatorius).

6 Surkh = 1 Mashah. 4 Méshah = 1 Ténk.

4 See Vol. I, p. 16, n. and p- 36, for some of these measures and the weights that follow. The 15th Chapter of Albirini deals with the metrology of the Hindus and may be compared with those mea- sures. I append a very valuable note by Dr. Prain, Curator of the Herbarium, Royal Botanical Gardens, Calcutta, on the distinction between the kinds of mastard called ‘Khardal’ and ‘Sarshaf’ in the text and which remarkably confirms by actual experiment the aconracy of tho weights. To Dr. King, the distinguished Superintendent of the Gardens, to whom T have already expressed my many obliga- tions in the 2nd Vol. of the work, I am again indebted for the learned co-opera- tion of Dr. Prain.

‘“Khardal” and “Sarshaf” are both

. names that are applied to Buack-musTaRD

(Urassica nicRa).

The former, name is, Watt saya, (in Dict. Econ. Prod. 1, 521) applied, with a qualification, to WHITE musTaRD; the latter apparegtly is not.

There is little doubt that by the lower unit of the two (Kuarpvat) the seed of Black or true mustard is meant.

The question is as to the identity of the othor anit.

Und “ Sarshaf” been applicd to both and ‘’ Khardal” restricted to black mus-

tard, one would have felt inclined to say that white mustard (Sinapis a/bad was intended. But it must be remembered that white mustard i¢ an uncommon plant in Asia; and that Boissier only sporks of it as a plant of waste places and groves in Greece, Palestine and Taarus, (not even admitting it as aPorsian specics} and that its seeds, though much larger than those of B. nigra, do not snit the conditions required better than those of another species to bo mentioned imme- diately. This is Brassica juncea—~the well- known Indian mustard or Rdt which is cultivated in Persia, as it is in India, for its oil, The vernacular names given by Watt do not include “ Khardal” alone or qualified, but apparontly the “ Sarshaf ”’ Appears (e. g., in the Bengali name “ Réi Sarisha ”) and this, therefore, seems to be the species that best snits the condi- tions; for Abul Faz! would be most pro- bably referring to a well-known and common plant by his second word.

As rogards the physical conditions, Rai seeds seem to suit vory well, so far as the Calcutta Herbarium material goes. For ia weighing 8 ripe seeds of Brassiva nigra from Madeira against one ripe seed of India Brassica juncea, tho scale shows very close approximation in woight ; and 8 ripe seeds of Brassica Juncea from

CL ny Lowy

124

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

1 Anjali, (two hands joined with the palms hol-

[lowed.

2 Tank =1 Kaul.

2 Kaul = 1 Télchah. 2 Télchah == 1 Suktt.

2 Suktd = 1 Pal.

2 Pal = Palm of the hand. 2 Palms =

2 Anjalt = 1 Mianika, 2 Minika = 1 Prastha. 4, Prastha = 1 Adhaka. 4 Adhaka = 1 Drona. 2 Drona = 1 Strpa. 2 Surpa = 1 Khari.

The Khéri of the present day is a7 jeanks CC: Me India exactly balance a ripe grain of baricy from Afghanistan, though a ripe barley-corn from Europe outweighs them. Attached are notes of synonyms of the two species :— (a) Brassica nicRA Koch, Deutsch. Fl. iv, 713. Boiss, Fl. Orient. I, 390. Hooker fil. and Thoms., Jour. Linn Soc. v, 170. Hooker fil. and T. Anders., Flor, Brit. Ind. I, 156. Watt, Dict. Econ. Prod. Ind. I, 580. Brassica (melanosinapis) the “true” mastard, or “ black” mustard; the ‘“Khardal’’ of the Arabs, but also the “ Sar- shaf” of Indian medical prac-

nigra ;

tice. Sinapis nigra Linnwas, Sp. Pl, 933. Wall. Cat. 4790. 8. erysimoides Roxb., Fl.

Ind. iii, 123.

This is cultivated in Europe generally ; in Northern Africa, from Madeira to Egypt and Abyssinia; in the Orient., Arabia, Asia Minor, Persia, Afghanis- tan; in Turkestan and Tibet; and (lo-

Syvonyas.

three times this measure.’

3

Bea eiye wee Ly “ref i,

cally) in Indias. Three seeds of this=one seed of Rai, (b) Brassica JuncEA Hook. f. and Thoms., Jour. Linn. Soc. v, 170. Hook. f.and f. Anders., Flor. Brit. Ind. T, 157. Watt, Dict. Econ. Prod. Ind. I, 628. Brassica (Ceratosinapis) juncea; the “Indian” mustard ; the “ Rai” of Indian cultivators. Synonyms, Brassica Willdenovit Boiss., Ann. Sc. Nat., (1842), 88. Sinapis juncea Linnteus, Sp. PL, 934, Boiss., F). Oriont. I 394, &. integrifolia Willd., Hort. Berol., t. 14. & ramosa Roxb., Fi. Ind. iii, &. rugosa Roxb., FY. Ind. iii, . &. cuneifolia Roxb., Fl. Ind. iii. This is cultivated (“ Colitar olei causa” Boiss. Fl. Orient., l. c.), in Egypt; Ara- bia; Porsin (sparingly); Afghanistan ; India (generally). One seed of this = three seeds of Blacks mustard. Eight seeds of .this=one barley-corn.

ure

JEWELLER’S WEIGHTS. 2

) JeweLLer’s WEIGHTS.

These are based on the Ténk and the Surkh. A Tank is equal to twenty- four Surkh, and the ordinary Miskal is two Surkh more. The Surkh is divided into twenty parts, each part being termed a biswahk. Formerly tvo and a half biswah were reckoned to one rice-grain, but the grains of that time were larger. His Majesty’s foresight and sagacity have adjust- ed the proportion of two biswah to the grain. Each Surkhk was equal to ten rice-grains. His Majesty in his wisdom.directed that the grains should be made of the cat’s eye stone and thus obviated the defect of currency. The standard weights kept ready for use are the following: the biswah, the rice-grain, } and tof Surkh, 2 Surkh, 3 Surkh, 6 Surkh (which is } of a Tank), 3,1, 2, 5, 10, 20, and 50 Tank. Any other gradations may be compounded of these weights, and for the imperial service, weights of cat’s eye up to 140 Tanks have been made of such brilliancy that they cannot be distinguished from gems.

7 Banger’s Wetcats.

These are based on the Tolchah, the Mdshah, and the Surkh. Formerly 6 now 7} rice-grains = 1 Surkh 8 Surkh = 1 Mashah 12 Mashah = 1 Télchah. The ordinary weights in use are 3, 1, and 4 Surkh: 1, 2, 4, 6, Méshah : L, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, 500 Téichah. Butin the imperial Exchequer, the gradations of weight kept ready are very numerous.

2 Orner Trave-weEIGats.

Formerly in Hindustsin, the sér weighed 18 and in some places 22 ddm, In the beginning of His Majesty’s reign it was current at 28 and is now fixed at 30, each ddim being 5 Tank. In the transactions in coral | and camphor the dim was reckoned at 51 ténk, but the price of these, articles having fallen, it is valued at five only. The weights in ordinary’ use are 3, 3, 2 of a sér; 1, 2,5, 10 ser; 4, 1 man which consists of 40 ser.

Tue Learning or tne Hinvts.

Throughout the wide extent of Hindustan there are three hundred and sixty systems of philosophy and conduct. By such means is the war- fare with the malice of the spirit carried on, and the hand of violence extended against the deceits of our internal foes. The desire anto evil l¢adeth to perdition and the worship of the Lord exalteth the heart. The writer of this work has mixed with many of the leaders of thought and has made himself acquainted to some extent with the discussions of the

126 THE LEARNING OF THE HINDUS.

different schools. A considerable body do not rise beyond the experienco of sight and hearing. They consider argument as idle discussion and accept no proof other than tradition of the past. Another school profess accept- ance of demonstration, but from interior blindness remove not the rust of ’ doubt. Another sect urge on the swift and light-paced dromedary of vision to the halting-place of truth in some questions, and from self- esteem imagine that they have likewise attained the same goal in others. And yet another body submit their intellects to those who affect stoicism and indifference, and in pursuit of their desire, lend to what is not the deceptive gloss of what is. Volumes would not contain the full tale of these. Who thinks to break his fast at the board of the parasite ? But for the benefit of real seekers of knowledge, I here set down the series of funda- mental systems which may be considered as nine in number and present the doctrines of each without discussion of their merits. It is my hope that inquirers may carefully study them and compare them with the principles of the Platonists, the Peripatetics, the Sifis and dogmatic theologians, and removing the obstructions of prejudice, seek alone for demonstration, and putting aside the estrangements ‘of ignorance, exercise scrutiny with ‘ caution.

• In this country there are eight sects who professedly teach the doc- trines of the emanation of the world, of a life to come, of the essence and attributes of the verities that underlie superior and inferior cosmic pheno- mena, and the ceremonial and modes of worship and the forms of monarch- ical government both visible and symbolic: the ninth denies the existence of God and rejects the belief in a beginning or end of existenee. Each of these have their special doctrines and rules of conduct and an ample nomenclature, but the system is that of the Greeks before the time of Aristotle. “Formerly they wrote with an iron style on the leaves of the palm and the ¢uz,! but now on paper, and from left to right. The leaves are kept separate and it is not the practice to stitch them together. Their \mystic idealism enlightens the understanding and invigorates the soul, But how shall I proceed? for my heart inclines from speech to silence. Time after time, the ordinary subjects of knowledge, sinking deep into any yaind oppress me to use true science, by which stair the soul might rise to insight into truth, as a means to procure rank and wealth, and again, at times, my understanding is luminously inspired not to make pread-winning and pencraft the end of knowledge. The scarcher after a formula is unable to express it, or if discovered, the mind suffices not for its full cognition. For this reason, the tongue of speech adheres to

a —— - _ ei es mag

1 See Vol. IT, p. 351,

THE LEARNING OF THE HINDUS. 127

the palate of silence and the head of thought sinks into the collar of depression, although it is said that he whoso leisure is undisfurbed, may in stillness be inspired to eloquence and the lover of taciturnity find voice though the inspired himself shall be dumb. But in truth to sully the tongue with utterance is to expose oneself to error. - My own spirit is Weary with discussion and my tongue oppressed by declaiming. I know not if this be lassitude of the disposition or the first revelation of truth, whether darkness overshadow my path with confusion or the leader of the caravan on this long journey be not yet arrived. Speech is a beverage filled with poison, and silence is a desert of sweet waters, the hidden source “ whereof flows from the possessors of truth. I have taken no quarry better than prayer and have seen no lamp brighter than silence. If my state were not one of such. perplexity, and my mind not so averse from lengthened discussion, I would expound the philosophy of the Hindus after the systems of the Greeks, but as it is, in accordance with my design, I here set down what befits the scope of this work and my leisure permits.

Description oF THE Ning ScuHooxs.

Naiydyika is one who is versed in the Nydya philosophy. Vaiseshika treats likewise of philosophy and its professors will be later on noticed. Veddnti is one who is conversant with the Veddnta System. If/mamsakais a follower of the Mimamsé philosophy. Sdnkhya, Pdtanjala, Jaina, Bauddha, Néstika. Each of these is distinct in its doctrine and their several principles will be hereafter explained. The Brahmans consider the last thrée as heretical and they admit no philosophical systems beyond the first six which they term shaddargana, that is, the six modes of knowledge. The Nydya and Vaiseshika agree in many points, as do the Veddnta and Mimansdé, and the Sdnkhya and the Pdtanjala.

Nydya. The founder of this school was the sage Gantama. It com- prises within its field, physiology, theology, mathematics, logic and dialectics Its followers hold the Supreme Being to be exempt from plurality, neither begotten nor begetting, incorporeal and free from all defect. He is without beginning as without end, the Creator, the Preserver, and they regard Him as pure Spirit: but they assort that he created a bodily form and united Himself thereto in a determinate manner; and as the body is cap- able of actiog through its union with the soul, so does this corporeal form energize in union with the Deity without sullying the robe of its inviolable sanctity. This doctrine is akin to that of the Christians. The appellations of divinity are conceded to it, but it is not belioved to be from all eternity. The Creator of the world, through the instrumentality of this Being, revealed His words unto men, and this revelation they call Veda. It

128 DESCRIPTION OF THE NEW SCHOOLS.

consists of upwards of one hundred thonsand verses (Soka) each of. which comprises four feet (charana) each foot being of not less than eight or more than twenty-six letters (Akshara). In this book it does not exceed twenty. An akshara consists of either one or two letters: if of two, the last is quies- cent. A holy man named Vyasa divided this book into four parts to each’ of which he assigned a separate name, viz., the Rigveda, the Yajurveda, the Samavedaw and the Atharvaveda. These four are considered divine books. Some assert that the First Being had four mouths from each of which a Book issued. Every Brahma who appears, wonderful to relate, delivers the same letters and words without diminution or addition.

They maintain that God is the absolute Efficient Cause and that the works of men are produced by these two sources of causation, (viz., God and Brahma). The moral distinctions of good and evil in actions are deduced from the divine Books. They believe in hell and heaven. The former they term Naraka and locate it in the lower region. The latter is called Svarga and is assigned to the celestial region. They do not believe in a perpetual duration of existence in either paradise or hell, but that men in the measure of their evil deeds may descend into hell and receive condign punishment, and thence coming forth assume other bodies, and for their good. works obtain happiness in heaven, and again issuing from it, return into» new forms: thus they will come and, go until they have fully received the recompense or punishment of their former deeds, after which freed from.2 “vue necessity Or these two 5.+es, they will be liberated from joy and

sorrow as will be hereafter related.

Some believe that portions of the world are from eternity and that some are created, as will be afterwards mentioned. They assign eight attributes to the Deity which they call accidents. 1. Gydna, omniscience, by which He knows the future and the past, all that is secret or manifest, in whole and in part, and ignorance and forgetfulness ‘cannot approach Him. 2. Ichchhd, will. All things at His pleasure are created or fall into nothingness. 3. Prayatna, providential order and the due procession of causes so that existence and non-existence may have their realisation. 4. Sankhyd, numerical series, and this is of three kinds, unity, duality and excess of these. The first named is an attribute of the Almighty. 5. Pramdna, extent, and this is of four kinds as will be hereinafter men- tioned. As they believe God to be omnipresent, his extent must be infinite. 6. Prithaktva, severalty and individuality. As of Sankhya, this is of three kinds, the first being a Divine attribute. 7. Samyoga, co-inherence, because all things unite in Him. 8. Vi-bhdga, disjunction. The last six of these are accounted to have been from all eternity.

3 THR SIXTEEN PREDICAMENTS. 129 ~ Sixteen subjects called predicaments (paddrtha),’ are discussed by this system and these topics comprise all the objects of thought. Although it does not strictly proceed beyond the second, nor, indeed, beyond its .subardinate classification of Avtha, yet a few details are here sct down

• for information. :

. THE SIXTEEN Prepicaments.

«.1 Pramana. 2 Prameya. 3 Sangaya. 4 Prayojana. 5 Drishténta. 6 Siddhanta. 7 Avayava. 8 Tarka. 7 9 Nirnaya. 10 Vada. 11 Jalpa. 12 Vitanda. 13 Hetvabhaso. 14 Chhala. 15 Jati. 16 Nigraha-sthana.

The First Predicament, Pramdna, (proof) is of four kinds. 1 Pra- tyaksha, (perception) by the six perfect senses, viz., the five external senses together with mtlnas which will be hereafter explained. 2 Anu- mdna, inference. 3 Upamdna, resemblance and analogy. 4 Sabda, tradi- tion of trustworthy and pious men. These four are held to embrace a considerable extent of knowledge.

The Second Predicament. Prameya signifies the objects of thought, and this which is beyond the reach of numeration, is yet classed under twelve heads. 1 Atman. 2 Sarira. 3 Indriya. 4& Artha. 5 Buddhi. 6 ‘Manas. 7 Pravyitti, 8 Dosha. 9 Pretyabhiva. 10 Phala. 11 Duhkha. 12 Apavarga.

I. Atman, soul, is a subtilo, all-pervading substance which is the seat of the understanding, and it is of two kinds. The first kind is Jivdtman (the vital principle), which vivifies human bodics and the animal and vegetable creation. Hach body is supposed to be informed, by a distinct spirit whose perceptions, through the senses and opcrations of the intel- lect, can be exercised only in conjunction with the substance manas? to be subsequently explained. The second kind is Paramdiman, the Supreme

ar

1 This term is translated by Cole- brooke indifferently as category or pre- dicamont, and by Dr. Réer as Category, Davies in his Hindu Philosophy, uses predicaments and categories as synony- mous (p. 127) in his rendering of puddr- tha. J have distinguished theso sixteen subjects as predicaments to avoid con- fusing the nambers with the subordinate categories given by Abul Faz] under the heading of artha, the 4th classification of the second predicament, prameya,

17

Of these sixtcen, says Mr. Daviog, the first two aro the chief, the others being only subsidiary, a8 indicating the course which a discussion may take, from tho setting forth of a doubt, to the final con- fatation of the doubter.

3 The distinction betweon the sensitive materiel organ manus and the rational conscious soul jivdtnan, is the Guxds and pau of Pythagoras, one porishing with the body, the other immortal, v. Cole- brooke, Essays, I, 442.

330 THE SIXTEEN PREDICAMENTS.

Soul, which they hold to be One and from all eternity. Its intellectual cognitions are independent of the operation of manas.

Il. Sarira, body, is also of two kinds. Yéni-ja (uterine), sexually produced. dyoni-ja, that which is not so produced. The first mentioned has two further subdivisions, viz., jardyu-ja, viviparous, and azda-ja, oviparons, and both are formed of the five elements.!’ The latter, ayoni-ja,

&

1 It may be instractive to transcribe the account of the elements taken from the Kashshdf i fstiladhdta’l Funan, and to com- pare it with Abul Fazls description of the elemental spheres at p. 38 of this volume.

An clement is defined as being a simple body with the quality of directness of tendency. By simple, is understood that which is not composed of bodies of really distinct natures, while a direct- ness of tendency is the tendency of a

_ body towards the centre or circumfer- ence. This is to exclude the heavenly bodies. ‘The later philosophers affirm

that the elements are four in nnmber: }, °

absolute tenuity, i. ¢. fire; 2, relative tennity, i. e, air; 3, absolate density, earth; 4, relative density, water. Ab- solute density is that quality which

necessitates the movement of a body to .

a@ point where its centre of gravity im- pinges on the centre of the universe, snch as earth. Kelative density is that quality which necessitates the move- ment of a body towards the centre throvghout most of the distance between the centre and the circumference, but without reaching the‘centre. Absolate tennity is that quality which necessi- tates the movement of a body to where its surface compactly underlies the snr- face of the concave side of the moon’s ephere, such as fire. Relative tenuity is that quality which necessitates the mo- tion of a body towards the circamfer- ence throughont most of the distance between the centre snd the circamfer- ence but without reaching the latter,

such as air. Some]muaintain that there is but one element, bat differ as to the one, and the following are the five opini- ons on the subject: Ist, Chat it ie fire because of its absolute simpleness, and because heat is the nourishing principle of the universe, while the others are produced by condensation. 2nd, That it is air because of its humidity and its subjection to external influences, fire being prodaced by the heat of rarefied air, and the other two by its condensing cold 3rd, Water, as its capability of being rarefied and condensed is evident. 4th, Marth, because the others are gene- rated by subtilization, 5th, Vapoar, because it is a mean between these four in tenuity and density, for when con- densed in excess, it becomes earth and water, and if highly rarefied, fire and air. Others maintain that there cannot be but one, because a compound involves the plarality of its components. Hence they make the elements two in number, and three different opinions are enter: tained thereon. Ist, Five, since it is the extreme of tennity and heat, and Earth because itis the extreme of density and cold. Air, according to tthis theory is but fire inert, while water is earth in fluidity. 2nd, Water and Earth, becanse created things have need’of humidity to be acted upon and to take form, and of drynegs to retain the shapes assnined. 8rd, Earth and Air for the same reasons. Another opinion is that the elements are three: Kurth and Water for the reasons above given, and (3) fire through its fostering heat. It is also asserted that

THE SIXTEEN PREDICAMENTS, 131

has four subdivisions. 1. Piérthtva, formed of earth; 2. Apya, formed of water; 38. Zuijasa of fire. 4. Vayaviya, of air.

the elements of complex bodies are not four or oven fewer but that they are solid, indivisible und infinite. Others again suppose that the“cloments of compounds are surfaces, since composition is the effect of junction and contact, and this first appears in plane surfaces. All the elements are spherical’ because the na- tural form of a simple body is circular. Water would spontaneous have en- compassed the earth, bat as hills and valleys were produced in parts of the globe, by reason of the celestial move- ments and conjunctions, the water flowed into the depressions and the high places appeared tu view, water and earth becoming, as it were, one sphere bhrongh the wisdom of God and His mercy that it might be a growing-place for plants and a habitation for animals. The four elements are capable of undergoing generation and decay go that each may be converted into the other. Some of them undergo this change without ex- ternal interferenco, because each cle- ment shares the quality of another in some particular while it diffars in an- other. Thas earth may become water and vice versa, for alchemists profess to convert stones into liquid, while occa- sionally water is convertible into stone, 8o, too, water Is changed into vapour by heat, and vapour into water by refriger- ation, and gir can become fire as instanced in the blacksinith’s forge, and tice versa, as in a flame of fire, otherwise the flame would rise to the sky aud consume what- ever might be above it, which is not the cuse. Other elements undergo change by external agency; this happens when two elements differ in their several qualitics as water and firo, and air and

earth, for water does not become fire directly, but first is changed into vapour and then fire and soon. Philosophers think that the four clements are the components of all matter. The elements ave seven in number. The highest is that of pure fire: its convex is impactod with the concave of the moon’s spliere: below this is a stratum compounded of pure fire with heated particles of air. Here the ascending vapours are dissipate’, and comets and Zodiacal lights are formed. Next suececds the region of intense heat. This is simple air cooled by its proximity to the earth and to water which tie solar rays donot touch. It is, however, generally supposed that clonds, thander, lightning and thanderbolts are gencrated in this sone, so that it cannot bo air pure and simple. Next follows the belt of vapour which is that of air permeuted by tluid, succeeded by an earthy stratum of carth and air, followed by that of clay, which consists of curth and water, and hustly the earth itself ‘which surrounds the centre of the globe. It is of eurth pure and simple and is colourless. An- other account more widely received, makes the elements nine. 1, Pure fire. 2, Fire and heated air. In this, the ascending vapours disperse, and stars and the like ° are formed, such as comets} Zodiacal lights and Ivminongs streams. 3, Air mostly predominates and here meteors are formed. 4 The regiou of intense cold. 5 Earth mixed with air. 6. Dense air approximating to the region of earth and water. 7. Water, t.e., the sexs, uve Where a portion of this belt rises above the surface of the eurth, 8. Warth mixed with other matter, the region of mountain, mineral, and vege-

132 THE SIXTEEN PREDICAMENTS.

IIL. Indriya, signifies the five organs of sense together with Manas (the internal organ), a subtile substance intimately connected with the cone-shaped human heart. It is the source of perception, and it is by its action, they consider, that a man roams in imagination through distant

countries, In contradistinction to Atman, it is not considered to be all-pervading, but the Mimamsa School maintain that it possesses this quality.

IV. Artha (objects of sense.) Under this head are seven categorics.

1. Dravya. 2. Guna. 3. Karman. 4. Samdnya. 5. Visesha. 6. Sama- vaya. 7. Abhdva.

The first signifies substance,* which they conceive to be all-pervading and eternal, while with regard to the four elements, its indivisible atoms only are held to be eternal in duration. (Itis subdivided into) Atman: Manas: AkdsSu: the four elements, kdla and dié.

Tig first two have been already mentioned. The third is a subtile fluid, all-pervading, and has the quality of sound. The four elements are recog- nised after the system of the Greeks, but air is regarded as the highest in

table and animal life. 9. The stratam of earth pure and simple which surrounds the centre of the globe. See Art. vrais,

The fifth element is Ether. See p. 12 of this volume.

1 These are: the eye, the ear, the nose, the tongue and the skin; the five organs of action boing the voice, the hands, the feet, the arms and the organs of generation. Manas or mind, is the organ of the bodily senses. By union with the external senses it produces knowledge of exterior objects. Its office is to separate the sensations and to present them singly to the soul; since the soul does not receive more than one perception at the same instant. ‘The Afancs is minutely small as an atom: for otherwise it might come into con- nection with many things or sensations at one time. It ig eternal and distinct both from soul and body. Davies, Hind. Phil. pp. 21. 122.

3 This first category dravya (sub- stance) is subdivided by Davies into nine divisions. 1 Warth (prithivf). 2 water (dpas}; 3 light (tejas); 4 air (udyu);

5 Ether (dkdéa); 6 time (kdla); 7 space (dif) ;, 8 Soul (dtan) ; 9 mind (manas). p. 128.

Substance is defined by Kanéda to be the substrate of qualities and actions and possessing intimate causality. This is explained in the commentary of the Bhashé Parichcheda to be the substrate of qualities either in the relation of inti- mate union (Samavdya Sambandha) or in the relation of antecedent negation (Prdgabhdva) that is, of futare existence. The latter definition is to obviate an objection which may be raised from the condition of substances at the time of ther prodaction. When substances are produced, they have, according to the Nydya, no qualities. If they have no qualities, they are no substances accord- ing to the definition that substances are the substrate of qualities. By the second definition that they are substrates of ‘qualities either in the relation of inti- mate union, or of future existences, this objection is removed. Categories of the Nydya Philosophy, Dr. B. Réer. p. 8

THE SIXTEEN PREDICAMENTS. 133

in order, Kala time,’ is a substance impalpable and universal. Dis, space, has the same character.

Attributes are of the following six kinds. (1) Karman, action, the third category, is divided into five varieties, progressive action, upward and downward action, contraction and dilatation, and is non-eternal. (2) The fourth category is Sémdnya,? community, and is one, expresses exis- tence, and denotes qualities. Its generic character is eternal, and it resides in substance, quality, and action. It is also called Jdti Sémdnya (generic community) and secondly’ Upddhi (discriminative or specific) Sdmdnya ; it has an objective existence, having qualities common to all objects.

(3) The fifth category Visesha,> particularity, is an attribute, being of its own essence dissociated from everything, has a separate resting- place, and is based only upon eternal matter. Prithaktva, individuality, is, on the other hand, a quality, and although it implies disjunction, it does not do so to the same degree, and is not in the same manner distinguished.

(4) The sixth category, Samavdéya, denotes the co-inherence of five entities with their correlatives, such as (1) movement and its authoy; (2) quality and substance; (3) matter and the thing made, as clay and the vesscl of clay, yarn and its cloth; (4) the whole and its component parts ; (5) particularity and eternal matter.

1 Time is inferred from tho relation of priority and subsequence other than that of place. It is marked by associa- tion of objects with the sun’s revolutions. Space is inferred from the relation of Priority and subsequence other than that of time. It is deduced from the notion of here and there. Davies, p. 130,

® Davies’ tefinition is that it expresses only existence in its highest degree, and is the source of our notion of genus. It donotes also species as indicating a class, these genera and species having a real objective existenco. Tho Banddhas deny this, affirming that individuals only have existencg, and that abstractions are false conceptions, a revival of the Realist and Nominalist controversy of the schoolmen. p. 131. This ia differently €xplained in the Tarka Sangraha. “Community (Saménya) is eternal, one, belonging to more than one, residing in Snbatance, quality and action. It is of

two kinds, the highest, and what is lower. The highest is existence (Suttwa), the lower is genus (jdti, family or race) such as have the nature of sabs- tance and the rest.” Ibid. p. 26.

8 The difference between this and the following term is explained as follows by Prof. Cowell, “ Particularity is the individuality which characterises simple substances,—it is ‘their ultimate, and not further explicable difference.’ Ail compound substances from jars down to the combination of two atoms, aro mutually separated by the difference of their componont parts, but partica- larity is the only mutual @ifference of atoms. This difference is differenced through itself only.” Siddh-Aluktav. Colebrooke. I.n.p. 308. Individuality is of two sorts, one of o pair, or mani- fold, as individuality of o triad. It is eternal in respect of eternal things, transient in regard to such as are tran-

134 THE SIXTHEN- PREDICAMENTS.

Strangely enough they regard Sumavdya’ as one and eternal. This school classes co-inherence under three heads. Theo first as mentioned above, and if it occurs between two substances, it is termed Sumyoga, simple™conjunction, as is stated in the mention of qualities, and they consider it to possess plurality. Secondly. the connection of the immaterial with the material, as the son] with the body. This they call Svaripa, natural form.

(5) The seventh category is abhdva, privation or negation, and is of two kinds. Samsargdbhdva universal, and anyonydbhdava, mutual negation between two things, as one might say “ this is not that.” This reciprocal negation must be one in time and place.

The first kind includes three species :8 (1), prdgabhdva, antecedent negation; (2), pradhanasdbhava, emergent negation; (3), atyantdbhdva, absolate negation, that is a negation of what is not one in place, while one in time as, “ Zayd standing on the bank of the river, is lost in the desert.”

(6) Attributes that do not come under these last five categories are qualities? and termed gure, (second category) of which there are twenty- four varieties: (1), Répa, colour (or form) of which five are elementary, namely, red, yellow, blue, black, white, the other colours being com- pounded of these: (2), Rusa, savour. This is of six kinds; sweet, bitter,

sitory. In a pair or triad it is transi- tery, resulting from comprrison as adnad or a triad does. Colebrooke I.

there is smoke there is fire, they contra- dict it by thia distinction, for smoke, besides residing in a givon place by 802. Samyoga, resides by Samavadya, in its

1 Numerically it is one, and then it is own parts, where firo is not. V. Dr.

the same Samandya that connects a jar, and its colour in India, and another jar &c., in Europe, andthat connected Adam’s soul with its qualities, and that of the reader’s with its own. They affirm that substarce may want qualities altogether asthe latter are not produced till after the production of the substances them- 6elvea, so that a jar, when first prodnced, may be devoid of colour, smell, taste and tangibility, and in the next moment become endowed with them. A whole has no qualities, whereas its parts have, by the relation culled Samardya. Smoke is snid to reside in a place by relation of Samyoga and in its parts by Samavdya. Therefore by asserting that whenever

Fitz-Edward Hall, p. 94-5.

& The illustrations of the three specics are thus given by Davis: (1), antece- dent ; a present negation of what will be at some future time, as in yarn before the prodaction of cloth; (2}, emergent, which’ is destruction or vessation of an effect. as a broken jar; (3), absolute, implying that which never existed, as fire in a Inke. Mutaal, privation is an esentia) difference, a reciprocal nega- tion of identity, as in cloth and a jar, p. 131.

8 Quality is closely anited with sub- stunce; not, however, as an intimate cause of it, nor consisting in motion, but common: nota genus, yet appor-

TUE SIXTEEN PREDICAMENTS. . 135

acid, saline pungent and astringent, (3), Gandha, odour. (4), Sparsa, tangibility, that is the perception of touch which is of three kinds, cold, hot, and temperate: (5), Sankhyd, number which is also of three kinds, unity, duality, and plurality: (G6) Parimdza, quantity, which is of four kinds, (a) anu, atomic, (8) hrasvé,! the measure of two atoms, also called dvy-anuka, (y) dirgha, the measure of three or more atoms: (8), mahat, (vast) the measure of the ethereal firmament and the like. (7), Pre- thaktva, individuality, distinguishes one of two things from the other. It is in itself common to all, aud is not defined in the same manner as visesha. It is of three kinds, as for instance, “one is unlike that,” or “two or more are unlike it.” (8), Samyoga, is the conjunction of two substances, eternal and non-eternal, which.are united by a mutual attraction. They do not consider it to be one, like samavdya: (9), Vibhdga, disjunc- tion; (10), Pdrvatva, vpriority in time and place. (11), Aparatva, pos- teriorily: (12), Buddhi intellect. (13), Sukha, pleasure: (14), Duhkha, pain: (15), Ichchhd, desire: (16), Dvesha, aversion: (17), Prayatna, volition or effort: (18), Gurwéva, gravity. Lightness-is not held to be quality, but the negation of gravity: (19), Dravatva, fluidity. (20), Sneha, viscidity: (21), Sanskdéra, reproduction (of thought) which is of three kinds. (a) Vega (Sanskdra) (velocity) a quality which springs from mobility and produces motion, like the flight of an arrow from the bow,? for according to this school, motion is destroyed in the third

taining to one. It is independent of the production of a subsequent one would conjunction and disjunction, not the be impossible. The translation of

cause of them, nor itself endned with qualities, Colobrooke, Essays, I. 296.

’ This word in Sanskrit signifies, less, Kittle, small, short, and in grammara short vowel. Dvy-anuka, is transliter- ated by Abul Pazl, dinuka. Dirgha sig- nifics the quantity of a long vowel.

2‘ Velocity abides only in bodies and ia two-fold, produced by action or velo- city.” Cutegorics of the Nyayn. Réer, p 78. The qommentator observes on this that velocity in an arrow arises from action produced by conjunction without noise, and hence from the des- truction of a former action, arises a second and so on. Withont velocity, since one action is an obstacle to another, the destruction of a former action and

sanskéra is not satisfactorily settled, Rajendraléla Blitra in his translation of the Yogas of Pétanjali thus expresses himself -—“ The most important word in the aphorism is Saiskéra which has unfortunatoly not been explained in the commontary of Bhoja or in the Paitanjala Bhashya. In ordinary Sans- krit it has many meanings. In the Nytya it occurs in three different senses, velocity (vega) thinking (bhdvand) and elasticity (sthitisthdpaka). Adverting to the second meaning the Bhishé Parichobeda says: “Sniskira, called thinking (bhdvand) resides in sentient beings and is imporeeptible to the senses. Certainty which bas no in- attention in its constituent, is its

136 THE SIXTEEN PREDICAMENTS.

moment after its production,’ and hence this quality must of necessity be called into action and produce movement. (8) (Bhdvand) Sanskéra thinking, is a special characteristic of the reasoning faculty, and since knowledge does not endure in the mind beyond the space of three moments of time, recourse to this quality is imperative, and through the operation of the intellect, analogy, induction or intuition becomes the effective cause of the recollection of what has passed from the mind. (y) Sthitisthdpaka, elasticity, that is the resilience of what is bent to the contrary direction. (22), dharma,*? merit, or the state of rectitude in the intelligent soul. (23),

cause. It is also described to be the cause of memory and recognition.” Thus it is not memory as rendered by Dr. Réer. It is not sensation nor impres- sion, for it is not transient buat lasting. It is not perception, because that applies to the acceptance by the sensoriam of something existing without, and does not serve as the cause of memory. It is not idea, for it is the result of former ex- perience, and not spontaneous as an idea may be nor eternal, as the Greeks sup- posed ideas to be. Dr, Ballantyne renders it ‘self-reprodaction of thought’ but there 8 nothing like self-reproduction in it, for it is snid to be revived by external atimoli and not by its own effort. It is something, then, that perception, whether conscious or unconscious, leaves behind in the intellect to be revived afterwards under particular circumstances, and it is more or less connected with all intellec- tual acts as cause or effect. In the language of Dr. Morell (Mental Philo- sophy, p 95.) ‘When a given mental impression is produced, it remains for a time bofore the conscicusness, and then gives way toothers. We know, however, that it is not absolutely lost, for if proper conditions occur, the impression is re- newed. The conclusion is, that there must be something deposited within us which subsist8 permanently whether it be at any moment, the immediate object of our consciousness Or not. This some- thing we term a residuum using the

expression without implying any theory whatever.” The Sanskrit counterpart of this residuum is Safiskara.”

1 The special qualities of ether and the soul are a state which does not pervade, and a@ state which has only momentary duration. A thing is defined to have mo- mentary duration if in the third moment after its production it is destroyed. The special quality of ether is sound which does not pervade, for it is only locally produced, and it is destroyed in the third moment after it has commenced to exist, because the respective special qualities of pervading substances are destroyed by the same qualities which are afterwards produced; therefore the first sound is destroyed by the second. The same is the case with knowledge, for it is produced in the soul, a pervad- ing substance, within the limited space of the body, and ubsent in any other part of space, and similarly, it is of mo- mentary duration. Réer, p. 12.

3 The commentators, who are gene- rally under a Vedantio inflaence, explain virtue, dharma, as inclading humanity benevolence, acts of restraint (yuma) and of oblignution (niyaga). Acts of restraint, according to Gandapéda, are restraint of cruelty, falsehood, disho- nesty, incontinence and avarice! Actz of obligation are purification, content- ment, religious auaterities, sucred study and divine worship. Davies, p. 57,

THE SIXTEEN PREDICAMENTS. 137

atharma, demerit. This school believes that souls throngh these two qualities, assume various bodily forms, and receive their due recompense iu sorrow or joy. The first have their portion in Paradise: the second, in hell, and the world of death is the ultimate end of both. (24), Sabda, sound. The rational soul is distinguished by fourteen qualities: (1) in- tellect, (2) pleasure, (3) pain, (4) desire, (5) aversion, (6) effort, (7) merit, (8) demerit, (9) thinking, (10) number, (11) quantity, (12) individuality, (13) conjunction, (14) disjunction. The first nine are inseparable from it, while number (viz., unity), quantity, individuality conjunction, disjunction, and sound, are referrible to ether. Sound is its chief characteristic. With the exception of sound, these five are quali- ties of time and space, and the eight formed by these four together, with priority, posteriority attd velocity are qualities of manas : —Tangibility, num- ber, quantity individuality, conjunction, disjunction, priority, postewority and velocity are the nine accidents of air. Colour, tangibility, number, quan- tity, individuality, conjunction, disjunction, priority, posteriority, fluidity, velocity, are the eleven qualities of light (fire), and motion and tangibility, are its characteristics. Colour, taste, tangibility, number, quantity, indivi- duality, conjunction, disjunction, priovity, posteriority, gravity, fluidity, “viscidity and velocity are the fourteen qualities of water. Motion, viscidity, and tangibility ave ils characteristics, ‘I’he same fourteen are likewise those of earth, substituting for viscidity odour which abides in carth alone. Eternal qualities. Of these, six! characterise the deity, viz, intellect, desire, effort (one), number (7. e., unity), vastness of quantity (one), and individuality. Three qualities connote the vital principle, (jivdétman), the mind (manas) and ether, time and space, viz., quantity (one), number (unity), individuality. Four belong to the indivisible atoms of air, tangibility (one), number, quantity (one), individuality. Five to atoms of light (fire), colour, tangibility (one), number, quantity (one), indi- viduality. Nine to those of water; viz., colour, savour, tangibility, viscidity (one), number, quantity (one), individuality, gravity, and fluidity, Four to those of earth, viz., number (unity), quantity (one), individuality,

e

1 There are eight, of which five priority, posteriority and velocity in the are qualities of time and place, namely, mind. Reer, p. 13. Quantity is the number, quantity, sevoralty, conjunc- special cause of the uso and perception tion, and disjunction. Theso five with of measure, It is a nuiversal quatity and intellect desire and volition (or effort) common to all substances. Colebrooke.

are sited in the deity ; the sume five with

18

138 THE SIXTEEN PREDICAMENTS.

and gravity. They affirm that qualities, in their non-eternal (transitory aspects, including desire, effort, and intellect, are sited in olher than the Deity, and pleasure, pain, aversion and sound are produced in one mo- ment! of time, do not endure to the second, and are lost in the third, and the rest are not of great length of permanence.

Hight qualities are universal: number, quantity, individuality, con- junction, disjunction, priority, posteriority, gravity. Four are incident to all substances: namely, conjunction, disjunction, number other than unity, and individuality likewise not single. Those that alone are united in manas, are held to be intellect, pleasure, pain, desire, aversion, and effort. Such as are cognisable by inference are merit, demerit, thinking and gravity.

This much will suffice for example from among a multiplicity of division of these qualities.

Having now discussed the various categories of artha, I come to the fifth classification of Prameya, namely,

V. Buddhi® (intellect). Although it has been mentioned under the second category (guza) of artha, a somewhat more extended explanation will be of service. It is two-fold ; (1) anubhava, (notion or concept), which is produced by means of the four kinds of proof,§ and (2) smyits,* recolection, which is effected through bhévand sanskéra, (present

1 Vide note], p.186. This passage is marked as corrupt or donbtfal in the text. The initial alif in the two words «st and wy} should be prolated.

“% In the system of Kapila, duddhi is the faculty or organ, by which outward objects are presented to the view of the soul in their proper and definite form, and he assigns to lt every quality or state that is connected with the active life, as its primary seat and the first

• emanation of Nature (Prakriti). Davies p. 57.

B These are pratyaksha (perception) anumdna. (inference), upémdna (analogy) and gabda (verbal testimony. To these four kinds of proof of the Nyfya or logical school, the Vedantic adds arthd- patti (presumption) an informal kind of inference ; as, ‘‘ Devadatta dues not eat

by day and yet is fat, it is presumed therefore that he eats by night;” and abhdva (non-existence), a method of proof from an impossibility, or a ‘ re- ductio ad absurdum’ as, ‘‘ there can be no flowers in the sky.” Davies, p. 24.

4 Smritt signifies also tradition, the institutes of law as opposed to Sruti, the Veda or revelation. The laws of the Hindus, civil and religious, are believed by them to be founded on revelation, of which the Vedas are preserved in the very words. Another portion has been preserved by inspired writérs who having revelations present to their memory, have recorded holy precepts for which divine sanction is presame . The jJatter is smriti, recollection, (remembered law), in contradistinotion to fruti, audi- tion, revealed law. Colebrooke.

THE SIXTEEN PREDICAMENTS. 139

conscionsness of past ideas.) Anubhavea is of two kinds a right notion or wrong one. A wrong notion 7. e. (one not derived from proof) is threefold, namely, sansaya, doubt; viparyaya, error, and tarka, false premises. This last is a paddrtha (predicament) and will be explained in its place.

VI. Manas,i although referred to under substance, requires to be

mentioned next in order.

VII. Pravritti, activity, or employing the mind, tongue and other organs in good and evil works, They maintain that four functions are necessary to an outward action, knowing, willing, resolving and bodily

motion.

VIII. Dosha, (fault) they assert to be a cause of prayatna (effort),? and is of three kinds ; rdga, passion or extreme desire, dvesha, aversion ;

and moha, delusion of mind..

IX, Pretyabhdvq, (transmigration) signifies life, after death and the ‘union of the soul with the body, followed by death after life and disgolu-

tion succeeding connection.

X. Phala, (retribution) is the fruit of merit and demerit.

XI. Duhiha, is the opposite of Sukha, joy, which is not here intro- duced, as the pleasures of this world are by them accounted misery.

XI. Apavarga, (emancipation) is eternal release from pain. There- , ave twenty-one varieties of pain, or evil, and these reside in the six organs of sense, the six objects (vishaya) of sensation, the six mental appre-

1 Ts the first of the internal organs receiving the impression made upon the senses. Primordial matter, the 8Aq of the Grecks, produced buddhi or intel- lect, from which proceeded Ahankdra or ogotism, and from this latter proceed the five organs of sonse (in- driya) and the five organs of action, and Jastly Manas, the receptive or discriminating faculty. The tongue is classed as an organ of action, and the faculty of speech is as much senga- tion as touching or walking. The Bfanas has the natare of both classes, being formative or plastic and a sense organ. In the Sdnkhya system of Kapila, it is not to be confounded with mind or the rational faculty of the soul, but is re- girded as a form of matter. I refer the

reader to Davies’ work whenco I have taken in scattered notices the substance of the above, and to ‘Colebrooke. This dismal philosophy is curious as an intel- lectual product, the precargor of tho ghastly metaphysics of Hartmann and Schopenhaner. The Hinda has the merit of originality and a better excuse. & Pravartand-Iakshené doshfh (Got, Sit. i. 18.) “The wise man, accord- ing to Gotama, is he who avoids the three mistakes of having a liking fora thing and acting accordingly: or of having a dislike for a thing and acting accordingly: or of being stupidly indif- ferent, and thereupon acting: instead of being intelligently indifferent and not acting at all’? [allantyne. V. Cole- brooke, I. 311, note by Prof. Cowell.

140 THE SIXTREN PREDICAMENTS.

hensions that proceed from them, the body which is the centre of In _ short, pain signifies all that men are averse from and by which distress The attainment of that state where these effects disappear, is called muhkti, or final emancipation, where the soul rests without per- ception or consciousness, is no longer connected with the body and is delivered from heaven and hell. They consider the union of the soul with body’ which they call janman (birth), as the source of pain. Its existence is due to merit and demerit, and through its companionship with the soul, it receives the recompense of good and evil, The cause of this is karman, (action), from which proceeds befitting time, or unsuitable deed and pain or pleasure. Yatna (effort), which is synony- mous with prayatna, and pravritti, activity, produce these consequences, and this in turn results from rdga or passion, which springs from mithydjnrdana,” erroncous opinion, originated by bhdwund sanskdra. By mortification of spirit aud body and by good works, the means of perfect knowledge are secured, resulting in the attainment of perfected capacities. Ignorance is

evil, pleasure itself which is filled with pain, and pain.

occurs.

1 In every form of earthly life, the soul is united to its own peculiar vehicle or body, but is not blended with it bat enveloped by it. By this is meant, not the gross material body which perishes at each migration, but the linga, the subtle umbra or sheath formed from the sub stance of the three internal organs, and the finer elements of matter (¢anmdtyra).

The lizga enters the womb and forms the inner frame over which the bodily form derived from the matter is wrought. The linga survives the body until the soul, by knowledge, becomes prepared for a separate life, and then it is absor- bed into the universal Nature from which it sprang. The theery of the linga, as Mr. Davies snys (p., 11,) deserves more consideration than it has received from the expounders of Sanskrit Philosophy. It plays an important part in the moral element of the system. Kapila attributes to the sonl only ® passive state and to the liaya ig assigned the congerios of states and affections which form the

individuality of each separate being, He calls it the acting son} or in the lon- guage of M. St. Hilaire, its “annexe,” the seat of those qualitics by which an individual is formed and thinks and feels according to his nature. In being com- pounded of budJtht and other substances, it shows what Professor Jowett has called “the interpenetration of the in- tellectual and moral faculties.” (Plato i. p. 464). Ihave borrowed throughout the langnage of Mr. Davies taken from vari- ous parts of hig able commentary, pp. 51. 52, 111 et seq.

% Alithya-jndna is used to signify that special misapprehension which estops release from the world. This term with ajndna, avidya, §c., technically denote something positive and not negative, Fitz Edward Hall, Hinda. Phil. systems, p. 11. Itis to be remembered that ignorance is the chief obstacle to emancipation.

8 The only real evil is pain which can be destroyed only by an eternal

THE SIXTEEN PREDICAMENTS. . 141

destroyed, true knowledge acquired, and the flux and reflux of existence vanish for ever.

Some say that when the intelligence attains its highest illumination, error and ignorance are annihilated and with them rdga aud dvesha, that is passion and aversion depart, and hence pravritt:, activity, is extirpated, and by its disappearance janman (birth), is no more, and pain and grief are dis- solved and makti brings everlasting bliss. Another opinion is that fativa- jndna, true kuowledge, dispels mithydjiana, or error, which causes the subver- sion of desire, which overwhelms prayaina. By its fall karman (action) is subverted and overturns with it dharma and adharma (merit and demerit). Janman (birth), thus, is swept away carrying with it dukkha (pain) in its overthrow. The Nydya school assert that when the material body perishes, knowledge dies with it. Perfect knowledge depends upon three conditions : (1) Savana, hearing, and studying the Vedas and the existing traditions of the sages, and this cannot be attained except by the aid of one who, has travelled this road: (2) manana, consideration, by which the sacred books and the precepts of the virtuous are when apprchended, studiously illumined by proofs that convince the mind. The effect of this study, according to one opinion, issues in a speculation as to the nature of the rational soul and whether it is not apart from all else;! (3) nididhydsana, profound contemplation; by frequent reflection and re- "” iterated thought on the objects of contemplation in their entirety, the mind becomes habitually absorbed therein and advancing beyond the objective sensations of sight and deed, becomes the recipient of truth.’

separation of the soal from matter, intellect, it perceives and under-

which is obtained by knowledge, and not by the acquisition of morit through a vir- tuous life.

1 In Kapila’s system, the soul is so- litary and perfectly distinct from matter and therefore from the modifications the modes of Natare produce. It be- holds as an eye-witness, for insight and cognition are not properties of matter. It is neutral (Madhyastha, lit. standing betweon) “as a wandoring ascetic is lonely and unconcerned, while the vil- lagers are being engaged in agriculture,” Ji is perceptive, which diffors from the second quality in this, that as a witness it observes only, bat by seeing that which ia presented to it by the

stands the phenomena of the material world, itis still, however, passive and inert.’ All action is inferior to the con- templative state and the soal in its regal grandeur, has no part in the inferior life of action. It directs as a sovereign but docs not work. Davies.

8 In tho Vedintasara, translated by Major Jacob, tho three conditions are thus oxplained ; ‘’ (a) hearing, is the as- certainment of all the Vedantic writings regarding the secondless Reality by the use of the sixfold moans of knowledge ; (b) consideration, is unceasing reflection on the secondless Reality which has been heard of, in conjunction with ar- gaments in support of the Vedanta: (c)

142 . THE SIXTEEN PREDICAMENTS.

It is asserted that the contemplation of the rational soul may be so continuous as not to be interrupted. When these three conditions are fulfilled with diligence and unwavering resolve, 2 sublime knowledge is attained and liberation secured from pain and pleasure ond the fetters of the corporeal state. This school professes the doctrine of Kdyavytha, multiplication of bodies!.

They maintain that when any of the specially favoured are illu- mined by the light of this knowledge, and are cognisant of their past exist- ences and future destiny, and know that a course of further transmigration awaits them, and desire to complete it, they receive a special power from the Supreme Being, and in a brief space-reccive these various forms and endure the pains and pleasures of life with the same spirit and the same intelligence, and when these forms pass away, attain eternal bliss. It is also said that all men will® arrive at final emancipation, and that thovgh the world is without a beginning, birth and production will eventually cease.

The third predicament SanSaya, doubt, is three-fold: (1). it may arise from the sight of objects with common qualities, as for example, an object may be seen from a distance, and not distinctly, known whether it be a tree or a man, and the like: (2). cause of doubt is likewise (a non-

profound contemplation, is the continu. ance of ideas consistent with the second-

the two) by force of will evolves the power, as fire omits sparks. To the

less Reality, to the exclusion of the notion of body and such like things which are inconsistent with Him.” It adds a fourth condition, Samddhi or meditation, p. 100, et. seq.

This eubject is touched upon in tho fourth chapter of the Yoga aphorisms of Patanjali. “When 8 Yogi, who has a mastery over the cardinal principles, with a view to enjoy at once the fruits of his actions, from the perception of his own superior transcendental powers, wishes to assume many bodies at the same time, whence does he derive muny thinking principles’ (to vitalize these bodies)? In reply the author says; “‘the created thinking principles (proceed) solely from egoism.” That is, that his own consciousness Or rather his abolute Ego, (for Fitchte distinguishes between

question how namerous thinking prin- ciples, having diversity of objects, are one in effect, the reply is, that in the diverse tendency of the many thinking principles the thinking principle of the Yogi is the impelling force, becanse it is the raler and therefore there is no difference of object. Thus he simnl- taneously operates through many bodies working out his emancipation by their joint acts.” Vide Rajondraléla Mitra’s translation p. 171-72.

8 A variant, the reading of one MS.,

has a negative, According to the S&n-

khya (and Mimamsa) systems, acquiring knowledge and thus gaining decliver- ance from contact with matter is the privilege of the few rather than a

duty manifest on all, See Davies p. 114,

THE SIXTEEN PREDICAMENTS. 143

general or special attribute) in regard to a particular object which is sepa- rate from the notion of eternal or non-cternal, substance or quality, and the doubt arises whether it be eternal or non-eternal, substance or qua- lity :! (3). Cause of doubt lies also in controversy when a subject may be the occasion’ of contradictory affirmation and denial between two learned disputants.

The fourth predicament, Prayojana, motive, is that which necessarily precedes and produces an effect and is termed causality. Of this there are not accounted more than three kinds: (1). the presence of efficient con- ditions and means is termed nimitta kérana, or instrumental causality : (2). the material cause is samavdyi kdrana, intimate or direct causality: (3). the indirect or non-intimate causality is called asamavdyi kérana? Cause is termed kérana and effect kdrya, and sdmagri is total causality, (the aggregate of conditions necessary for the forming of either, a material product, or a physical state). This subject is treated in Sanskrit philo- Sophy under the first predicament,

The fifth predicament is Drishtdnia, instance or example, showing invariable connection (between subject and predicate).

The sixth predicament, is Siddhdnta, dogma or determinate trath.

The seventh predicament is Avayava, (members of a) syllogism. This consists of five members’. I, Pratijna., the proposition, as in the

_——

1 The commentary of the Bhashé Parichchheda instances this in the fol- lowing case; if the notion of sound which is not the notion under which eternal and non-eternal is comprehended, is conceived as sound, the donbt arises whether it is eternal or non-eternal. Non-general is thus a predicate not fonnd in tho subject of the two ex- tremes. Réer.

® The usual qder is the intimate, non- intimate and instrumental. An instance for the first, is thread from which cloth is made ; for the second the conjunction of the threads; for the third, the loom. Intimate causality belohgs to substances, Non-intimate causality to qualities and actions. Réer p. 10. Or again, in desiro, the soul is the direct or intimate cause : the mediate or indirect is the conjanc- tion of the soul and its internal organ,

the mangas; the instrumental is know- ledge. Davies. p. 121. 8 The members are these :—

1. This hill is fiery.

2. For it smokes.

3. Whatever smokes is fiery.

4. This hill is smoking.

§ Therefore it is fiery.

or

1. Sound is non-eternal.

2. Beoause it is prodaced.

3. Whatever is produced is non-

eternal. 4, Sound is produced. 6 Therefore it is non-eternal. Some confine the syllogiam to three

mombers, either the first three or the last. In the latter form it is the syllo- gism of Aristotle. According to Rier, the Nydya knows only the two first figures of syllogism, and of these ouly

144 THE SIXTEEN PREDICAMENTS.

statement, “there is fire in this hill” II. Hetu, the concomitant reason supporting the proposition, “for it smokes,” by which the presence of fire is apprchended which is the ground for the inference, and this, in regard to the invariable connection (between subject and predicate), is threefold. Ifthe necessary connection is affirmative, it is called hevald- nvayin (concomitancy of affirmatives), and if negative, kevala-vyatirekin (concomitancy of negatives), and if both, anvaya-vyatirekin (affirmative and negative induction). Of this third kind five members are necessary for a complete syllogism. (1.) Paksha sativa! (subject of the conclusion) where the subject to be proved is supposed to be in a given place. (2.) Sapaksha sativa (similar instance, involving the major term) where the place of the subject and predicate are with certainty known or inferred as smoke aud fire ina kitchen hearth. (3.) Vipaksha sativa (negative instance) where the subject and predicate exclude each other as water (and fire). (4. Abddhita vishayatva, non-negation of the object of proof (by other proof)? (5.) <Asatpratipakshatva, (non-equalisation,) where there is no

the two moods Barbara and Camestres. A complete syllogism is properly termed nydya, the five members or component parts are called avayara.

1 That, where the oxistence of the property to be proved is doubtful, is called the subject of the conclnsion (paksha) as “(fire in the) mountain” when the fact of its smoking is the reason (or Hetw). That, where the existence of the property to be proved is undoubt- ed, is called the subject on the same side or Sapaksha, as the culinary hearth in the same argument, That which is undoubtedly possessed of the negation of the property to be proved, is called the subject in opposition or vipaksha ; as a great lake, in the same argument. Tarka Sangraha. Vidyaségara’s transla- tion.

These and the following terms are thus rendered in Dr. Richard Garbe’s translation of Aniruddha’s commentary on the Sdnkhya Sitras. “By means of a syllogism constraed in this manner we discern (1). that the invariably concom-

mitated (vydpya) is an attribute of the subject of the conclusion (paksha-dhar- matua), (2). that the vydpya exists in those things in which the invuriable concomitant (vydpaka) undoubtedly exists (sapaksha-sattva), (3). that the vydpya is excladed from those things from which the vydpaka is also excluded (vipakshddvydorittik), (4). that no equally strong reason can bo addaced against the reason which proves the proposition (asatpratipakshatva ), (5). that the vydpya is not such that its object does not exist in the subject of the con- clusion (abddhita-vishayatua).

2 The opposite of vthis is called bddhita, or the fallacy of absurdity, “where the negation of whatis to be proved is established by another proof as ‘fire is cold because it is a snb- stance.” Here the predicate of the conciasion, what is to be proved, is coldness, the negation of which, warmth, is apprehended by the organ of touch by one’s own self. Hence the argument is culled absurd’ Yarka Sangraha.

THE SIXTEEN PREDICAMENTS. 145

counterbalancing reason proving the negation of what is to be proved.! In the first classification of Hetu, (kevaldnvayin), the third of these five isabsent. In the second, (kevala-vyatirekin), the second of the five is absent. . III. Udéharana, the instance or example. The subject of a propo- sition is called vydpya: the predicate is the vyépaka, and vydpti, per- vasion or invariable concomitance, is the mutual relation of the subject and predicate.

IV. Upanayais the application of the reason to the subject in question.

Nigamana is the conclusion. Although it lies implicate in the major premiss, it forms the statement in the general proposition and becomes the consequent in the fifth.

The eighth predicament Tarka, is inadmissible conclusion at variance with proof, that is, the perception of a deduction from wrong premises.*

• By its statement the disputant removes the doubt in the relation of subject

and predicate. For instance to one who denied the existence of fire (in the hill) he would rejoin that without it there could be no smoke, of which fire is the cause.

The ninth predicament is Nirnaya, (ascertainment,) or a certainty of conclusion on the completion of proof. _, Thetenth Vada, (controversy,) is the expression of their respective views of a subject by two seekers after knowledge, supported by reasons brought forward with good feeling, and in the interests of truth, allowing neither their several convictions nor self-assertion to influence them, Verily such cour- teous® disputants, like the phoenix, move with steps that leave no trace.

The eleventh Jalpa, or wrangling, is the debate of disputants contend- ing for victory.

1 The opposite is called Satprati- ge | BQotg aTarviaaas | qayt

paksha or the fallacy of equalisation, afe afea mints waist a aifefat when the reason is counterbalanced by which is thus translated by Vidy&

another proving the negation of what is Sigara,” Reductio ad absurdum or Tarka Whe proved: As torexempley,.“soend is that which consists in founding the is eternal because it is cognizable by the pervader (vyépya) (here supposed to be organ of hearing,” as the generic property denied) through the allegation of the ot Sound ts: Seknon eazed by (both per: pervaded (vydpaka here supposed to be ties—it might be said on the other side taken for granted). As for instance : with equal force, sound is non-eternal If there were not fire (which yon do not

ee non CORIO Bee IRS Te : grant), there would not be smoke (whioh The text relegates the reading you admit there is).

Sim) to a note; it should peeperiy be in 8 I would read $idy,5 for $Oxd9,3. the text between the words b and Woy), It ig not wisdom nor ingenuity that is The words of the Tarka Sangraha on the rare, but courtesy and good temper. , definition are

19

146 THE SIXTEEN PREDICAMENTS.

The twelfth is Vitand4, objection or cavilling: The object of one dis- putant being the advancement of what is true and reasonable, and of the other to dispute his statements. :

The thirteenth is Hetvébhdsa, fallacy. This is a syllogism with tha semblance of a reason, of which there are five kinds. If this predicament were placed in order above Vdda, the tenth, or below the three following, it would be more ia place. ;

The fourteenth is Chhala, perversion of an adversary’s statement through malice, and disputing it.

The fifteenth is Jati, futility, or a reply both irrelevant and reprehensible, advanced with speciousness aud cavilling. This is of twenty-four kinds.

The sixteenth predicament is Nigrahasthdna, the confutation of an adversary, and is of twenty-two kinds.

Each of these sixteen subjects have numerous questions arising out: of them, supported by a variety of opinions, arguments and instances,

It is believed that whosoever apprehends these sixteen in their in- tegrity, is released from further birth and death, lives in freedom from pleasure and pain, and attains his final end by three degrees of knowledge: viz. (1), uddesa, (enunciation), by which he distinguishes the name of each of these sixteen predicaments and bears them in memory ; (2) lakshana, (definition), by which he arrives at their essential truth; (3) parikshé (investigation), by which he ascertains the sutliciency and perti- nence of their definition.

This school, though not acknowledging that the world had a begin- ning, yet believes in its final destruction. This they term pralaya, which is of two kinds. ;

In the first, Brahma slumbers in the chamber of non-existence, and appears no more, and all created forms perish. His absolute cause is the divine will, the completion of a decreed period and the coming of au appointed time. When this time arrives, by the will of God, merit and demerit cease to exist, and by the same divine will, the indivisible atoms (of primordial matter) are set in agitation,! from which bhdga,? (disjunc-

? Rarth according to the Ny4ya, is eter- nal in its atoms, non-cternal in its parts. An atom ig defined thus: “an atom is; what existe has no cause and is without beginning and end; an atom is contrary to what has @ measure.” Réer, p.14. Co-

_lour, taste and the like are said to be eter- nal, or otherwise according to the sub- stances in which they exist, these two be-

ing eternal in the atoms of water and light but in other substances haveacause, The atomic nature of the mind is inferred from the fact that several objects of knowledge are not perceived by it at once.

& I believe vibkdga is here meant, and the suffix has been omitted by the error of a copyiet. This is undoubtedly the sense of the passage.

THR SIXTESN PREDICAMENTS. 147

tion), is brought into reality, and Samyoga (union from contiguity) is dissolved. Tirst the globe of the earth, next fire, followed by air and water are successively destroyed and creation ceases to exist and all souls attain final emancipation. ‘This is termed mahdpralaya. In the second, is the final emancipation of Brahma, which is called Khazda-pralaya (partial dissolution). In this, with the exception of merit and demerit, present consciousress, and action, all else perish. At the close of one hundred extraordinary years, of which mention has been made,! Brahma attains this accomplishment of desire. After the lapse of this period, a succeed- ing Brahma is born, Another opinion is that there are four dissolutions. Besides the above two, there is a third when right apprehension is taken up from mankind and this will happen at the close of a cycle of the four ages. The fourth is the dissolution of each particular thing which is called its pralaya, as when the manas first dissolves its connection with the rational soul, and following this, when the union of soul and body is phen severed.?

The (renewed) creation of the world is called srishti, Through the volition of the Supreme Being, and after the lapse of ages and at the advent of a special time, merit and demerit recover their sway, and the indivisible atoms of matter are again moved. ‘Two atoms first combine: this is called

ws

L Vol. IT, p. 15. The aggregate of the four ages, Kritn, Trota, Dwapara and Kali multiplied by a thousand, constitute aday of Brahma; his night is of equal duration, and of such days and nights is the year of Brahma composed. One hundred such years constitute his whole life. A great Kalpa, as distinguished from a minor Kalpa, is properly not a day but a lifo of Brehmd. Vishnu Parana, Wilson, pp. 23, 25, 6 .

27 The following are the four kinds of dissolation as, given by the Vishna Purina. 1 Nuimittika, occasional ; Prd- krittka, elementul ; A’tyantika, absolute ; Nitya, perpetual. The first, also termed the Brahma dissolution, occurs when the sovereign of the world reclines in sleep. Inthe second, the mundane egg resolves into the primary element from whence it was derived. Absolute non-existence of the world, is the absorption of the sage through kuowledge into supreme spirit.

Perpetual destruction is tho constant disappearance, day and night, of all that are born. Vishna Parana, 66. The first three kinds are very powerfally des- cribed in the 6th book, the fourth chap- ter of which represents the clomental dissolntion in very striking language. The third kind, involving the final libe- ration from existence, is the subject of the 5th Chapter, where the sufferings of infancy, mauhood and old age are pourtreyed in & manner not surpassed in powor by any description in literature. With no hope beyond the grave, with hell for tho wicked and no cessution from pain oven in heaven, whose inha- bitants are tormented with the prospect of descending again to earth, no wonder that exemption from birth was the desire of the wise, and annihilation the last hope of those who were doomed to the sorrows of conception, birth and decay.

148 - THE SIXTEEN PREDICAMENTS.

dvy-anuka ;! then three dvy-anukas unite and are named try-anuka ; the union of four dvy-anukas is termed chatur-anuka, and thus they gradually coalesce, till numerous forms are manifested, and contrariwise to their dissolution, they are produced in the following order: air, fire, water, earth, and subsequently, Brahma, Vishnu and Mahddeva.* The three last are not apparent to the light of vision but assame shape and ere beneficent in their operation. From air spring aerial forms which reside in Vayuloka, a sphere above the earth, and the sense of touch® and the blowing wind whose energising essence is called in Sanskrit, prdna (vital breath), of which there

are five kinds® as will be related.

2 The first elements -of a compound substance must consist of three atoms to be visible. Rider, pp. 15-56. Davies describes these atoms according to the Vaiteshikas, as round, extremely mi- nute, invisible, incapable of division, eternal in themselves but not in their aggregate form. They have individually &@ specific difference (visesha), light, for example, being formed of Jaminous atoms. These atoms combine by twos and threes forming aggregates which come within range of sight as a mote ina sun- beam. ‘hey also combine by fours, are inumerable in extent, perpetually united, disintegrated, and redintegrated by an unseen peculiar force (adrishta). The disciples of Kandda, influenced by the Gotama teaching, explain this unseen force to be the Sapreme Spirit.

2 “Then ether, air, light, water, earth, severally united with the properties of sound and the rest, existed as distin- guishable according to their qualities, but possessing various energies they conld not without combination create living beings. Having combined therefore, they assumed the character of entire anity and from the direction of spirit with the acquiescence of the indiscrete Principle, Intellect and the regt, to the gross ele- ments inclusive, formed an egg. This vast egg was the abode of Vishnu in the form of Brahma.” Vishna Parana, p.

18. For the mundane egg, see p. 11 of this volume.

® “ther becdming produetive, en- gendered the rudiment of touch, whence originnted strong wind, the property of which is touch. Then wind becoming productive, produced the rudiment of form (colour) whence light (or fire) pro- ceeded of which form (colour) is the attri- bute ; and the rudiment of touch enve- Joped the wind with the radiment of colour. Light becoming productive, pro- duced the radiment of taste ; whence pro- ceed all juices in which flavour resides, and the rudiment of colour invested the juices with the rudiment of taste. The waters becoming productive, engendered the rndiment of smell], whence an aggre- gate (earth) originates of which smell is the property.” Vishna Purina, p. 16. The order of Empedocles was ether, water, .fire, air, earth. Véyu is the regent of the N. W. quarter, god of the wind and often associated with Indra in the Vedas. The wind-born spirits are Coubtless the swift moving deities called Mfératas formed from the unborn child of Diti, divided by Indra with his thunderbolt into 49 pieces, which became the same number of divinities. The world of the Mérwtas is the appointed heaven of the Vaifyas. Ibid pp. 48. 152.

• These are (1) prdna, breath, the ordinary inspiration and expiration,

THE SIXTEEN PREDICAMENTS, 149

From fire (light) spring fiery bodies dwelling in A’ztyaloka! which is the sphere of the sun, and vision and the modes of heat. From water are the aqueous bodies dwelling in Varunaloka®’ which is said to be near the mountain Suméru, and the rudiment of taste and the seas and ice and hail. From earth, are earthly forms, and the rudiment of smell, minerals, plants and animals. Brahmé by his volition first brings into being all (immovable)® forms produced without generation, and wonderful are the details they give herein, and it is said that a single eternal volition of the Deity at their appointed times operates to create and destroy, The creative will is called Chikirshd (desire to act) and the destructive will Sanjthirshé (desire to take away).

Their works are in a five-fold series, (1) Sutra, a short technical sentence: (2) dhdshya, commentary on a somewhat difficult séiva: (3) vérttika, a critical annotation oa the two: (4) tiké, commentary (properly of the original or of another commentary) on No. 3; (5) nibandha, aif ex-

°

(2.) Apdna, downward breath, the air or vital force acting in the lower parts of the body.

(3). Samdna, collective breath, so named from conducting equally the food, &c., through the body.

(4). Uddna, separate breath, the vital force that causes the pul- sations of the arteries in the upper portions of the body from the navel to the head.

(5.) Kydna separate breath, by which internal division and diffu- sion through the body are effected.

These airs are not the elemental air, bat subtle inward forces ueceasary to

ly increased to twelve, representing the months of the year.

• See p. 113. Varuna a name which corresponds with Ovdpayds, was appoint- ed to the sovereignty of the waters, according to tne Vishnu Pardna (p. 183) and was likewise an Aditya, but his fanctions reached far boyond this sphere and he was considered anciently as sovereign raler of the three worlds. The planets, the winds, the waters were equally in his power, and his attributes raised him to a height of moral grandeur above that of any of the Vedic deities.

Dr. Dowson who quotes Muir.

® The creation of the creator in his abstraction was the fivefold immovable

vitality and the efficacy of the organic fanctions of the human frame. Davies, pp. 66, 67,

7 A name of the sun; his car is pre- sided ovor by a troop of seven celestial beings who in turn, occupy his or during Several months of the year. Their names are given in the VieMna Pardna (p. 284.) They are the agents in the distribution of cold, heat and raiu at their respective Seasons. Their number was subsequent-

world without intellect or reflection, and void of perception and sensation, and destitute of motion. Since immovable things were first created, this is called the first creation. Vish. Pur. 34. These, Wilson observes, are final productions, or the forms in which the previously created elements and faculties are more orless perfectly aggregated. By im. movable things are meant the mineral and vegetable kingdoms.

150 THE VAIS ESHIKA.

planation of technical rules. Another opinions is that the series runs to twelve. Besides those enumerated, (6) vritit, a brief elucidation of some complicated subjects in the first-mentioned ; (7) nirukta, etymological interpretation of a word. Sound is held to be of two kinds, (a) inarticulate, which is termed dhvani! (sound, noise), and (8) articulate, varna (a letter, ) also called akshara, The junction of several letters is called pada, o word, and several words in connection form, vékya, a sentence, and collection of these make a stra, or aphorism, and several stitras are called prakarana (article or section). These Jast again when connected are termed éhnika, and an aggregate of the latter, adhydya, which combined together compose a sdstra or didactic work. In some treatises, ambiguities are discussed regarding the definitions of pada which are therein resolved : (8) prakarana, is o section treating of one or two topics: (9) dhnika, o short task sufficing for a diurnal lesson: (10) parisishta, a supplement to # technical work: (11) paddhati, a manual of the texts relating to each of the six sciences in prescribed order: (12) sangraha, an epitome of the sciences. These classes of works are not confined to this school alone. Vrajyé is a compendium or homogeneous collection, and instead of the divisions into sections and chapters, the following ten words are used, :

(1) anka (2) uchchhrdsa, (3) sarga, (4) visrdéma, (5) ulldsa, (6) patala. (7) adhydya, (8) uddesa, (9) adhina, (10) tantra.

The Nyaya philosophy is divided into five adhydyas. The first gives a list of the sixteen subjects to be discussed, and a definition of each. The second deals with the detail of pramdza (proof or evidence) and accurate knowledge and the like. The third is on the six kinds of objects of thought, namely, soul; body; organs of sense; objects of sense; intellect and mind. The fourth treats of its remaining heads. The fifth is on jati (futility), and nigrahasthéna (confutation of an adversary). Although the system of Kanada is antecedent in date, yet since the Nydya treats of a multiplicity of subjects, aud is generally the first studied, I have given it priority of place. ;

Vals’ ESHIKA.

This great system of science owes its origin to Kandda.* It agrees in the main, with the Nyaya, differing from it only on a few points.

1 According to the Nyfya, as in a is produced in the ear. Some say s

drom, and articulate, as ka and other letters by the contact of the throat with the palate. “Every sound is produced in the ether, but it is perceived when it

production takes pace like a succession of waves.” Roer’s Categories, p. 80.

® The Vaiseshika school as represented by Kanada, the reputed author of the

‘ THE VAIS‘ESHIKA. i

In the works of this school, seven predicaments are named which com-

prise the entire scheme.

These are dravya, substance, guna quality,

karman, action, sé@mdnya, community, vigesha, particularity, samavdya

intimate relation, and abhdva, negation.

Of praména, proof or evidence,

they accept only pratyaksha, (perception) and anumdna} (inference). The change in qualities occurring in the process of cooking termed péka-ja,*

Vaisehika Sitra of whom little is known, but that he was probably a contemporary of Gotama the author of the Nydya, is commonly classed with this latter sys- tem. Colebrooke is of opinion that they are both branches from the same stock, mainly in agreement on the subjects which they discnss, but directed in the former case to the explanation of the material and in the latter of ogical forms. The VaiSeshika system is one of physical science; the Nydya deals with elementary, metaphysical notions, and tho forms of the syllogism, and is the standard work in logic among the Hin- dus. I refer the reader for a criti- cal acconnt of the system to the intro- duction to the categorics by Dr. B. Réer, Colebrooke (Miscellaneous essays), to the Dialognes on Hindu Philosophy by Dr. K. M. Banerjea and Dr. Fitz Edward Hall’s Refatation of Hindu Philosophy. Little is known of Gotama the Aristotle of India. He is said, according, to Davies, to have been born at the begin- ning of the Treta Yuga, and to have married Ahaly4, the daughter of Brahmé ; Which may mean that he was a Brahman of noble desceat.

A curious story is by Dr. Hall quoted of the foromost of the Naiydyika writers after Gotama, Udayana Acharya, who was reputed to be inspired. It is enid that after the toil of a pilgrimage to the temple of Jagannéth at Puri, finding the door shut on his arrival, he lannched the following slokas against the exclusive divinity :-—

“Thon art drank with the inebriation

of majesty, me thou scornest. But let the Banddhas show themselves and upon me will depend thy very existence.” A deity that lives on the breath of his devotee can scarcely be worth defending.

2 The text has dtman, a copyist’s orror for anumdna. which it would closely resemble even to the diacritical points. The Vaigeshika system diffors frowm the Nydya in this very point, admitting only two kinds of proof, perception and in- ference.

3 “<The change produced by cooking takes place according to the Vaiseshikas in the single atoms” So the Bhisha Parichchheda. The commentator ob- serves on this, that as long as the parts are retained in the compound, no change by cooking is possible, but when by the union of fire, the compound sabstances have been destroyed, change occars in the atoms which become’ independent units. Agnin by the junction of atoms changed by process of cooking, a production is effected from the compound of two, three &c., atoms, again to a compound of many parts, for by the extraordinary velocity of heat, the transition from the destrac- tion of one compound tothe formation of another is sudden. The Naiyéyika view is that compound substances have pores and the minute parts of fire enter them and therefore the change by the process of cooking is possible, although the parts be retained in the compound, The Vaiseshika Sdtra on conjunction and disjunction is quoted by Réer (p. 56) with its explanation.

arts

152 THE Mistdusd.

arises from the sun’s rays or heat of the fire.

taste, smell and tangibility.

These qualities are colour,

The Naiyayikas assert that bodily substance is unchanged, whether

in its natural state or under the influence of heaé.

The Vaiseshikas,

that the (conjunction of) atoms forming the body, disintegrate through the action of heat and are re-united by divine power.

Again the Nyaya school make samavéya (constant intimate relation), perceptible to vision, while the Vaiseshikas allow it to be cognisable only

by argument and proof.

Mimdnsé’.

The founder of this school was the sage Jaimini.

Ié is more ancient

thau the two already described, and the chief exponents of its phil-

• The Mimdmsa is classed sometimes as the Puérva or Prior, and the Uttara or Posterior. The object of the first was to support the authority of the Vedas, to maintain their ritual, and interpret their trae meaning. Tho second is the Vedanta or supplement of the Vedas, and was formed at a later date based on the synonymous term Upanishads, or the mystic teaching of the Vodas. The Upanishads are called Vedin- tas, and their philosophy is known as the Vedintic System. The former deals with the ritaat section of the Vedas, the latter treats them in their scientific aspect, V. Dr. Fitz E. J. Hall, Gough’s Philosoph. of the Upan. and Davies.

Jaimini’s name occurs twice in the Vishnu Purana. He is described as the pupil of Vyasa, and as having divi- ded the branches of the Sama-veda, bat his date and history are altogether unknown. See Weber’s Hist. of In- dian Literature, p. 240. Of Kumirila Bhatta, nothing is ascertained except that he is said to have flourished prior to Sankara-fchérya, the chief exponent of the Vedénta school, whose date is ascribed approximately to the 8th century A. D. According to Cole- brooke, Kamérila-bhatta figares largely in the traditionary religious history

of India, and he is considered to have been the chief antagonist of the sect of Buddha, and to have instigated the persecution of that heresy. The analysis of the Mimamsa doctrines and its wearisome ceremonies may be studied in Colebrooke’s disquisition. In Weber’s opinion, the Sidtras of Kanida and Gotama appear to rank last, which does not prove that they are of lator origin, bat only in respect of their reduction to systematic treatmeat. Ac- cording to Dr. Raéjendralila Mitra, the various Sitras refer to each other indis- criminately. The Saukhya quotes the VaiseShika by name in two places, and refutes the doctrine of the Vedanta Sdtra. It recognises the Nyfya as well as the Sdnkhya. The Nydya refates the Vedanta and the Sénkhya, The Mimamsa by implication recognises the pre-existence of all, the others not excepting Buddhism. The Vedanta in turn refutes adverse doctrines of the other five, and admits their pre-exis- tence. This state of facts can be reconciled, he continues, by suppos- the different dogmas, and the schools tha€ cherished them, existed a long time before the -dogmas were written down in their present aphoristic form. Oral trans-

ing that

THE MINMSNSA, 1353

losophy ave Kumarila Bhatta, Prabhaékara Guru, and Muriri Migra. Its professors are said to reject the notion of a Supreme Being, while some accept it, but do not allow of a Creator, attributing the production of existing things to merit and demerit.1 When an assembly of the learned was convened witha view to ascertain the truth as to their creed, it was discovered that they were all of this latter opinion, but in deference to the variable character of minds, they are silent as to the nature of the Divinity, and lay the principal stress in discussion on the diversities of works. But men from ignorance and captiousness lay this opinion to their charge. Quantity is not accounted by them as attributable to God.§ Pariméaa, quantity, which the Nyaya school places among qualities, is not predicated by them of the Deity, and they do not allow that Brahma, Vishnu and Mahadeva are divine manifestations, affirming that human souls attain that eminence through good deeds. They hold mystic hymns in the place of particular deities whose potency they ascribe to the subtile spell» of

sound. They allow no beginning, nor end to the world, and believe the

mission must have been the principal means of their preservation. There might have been previous text-books, but they wore set aside by the complete systems prodnced by the new texts, and hence, tho regulation of adverse opinions Naturally included all the theories pre- valont at tho time when the books wore compiled, and not those only of the time of the original dogmas. Professor Cowell’s opinion is mnch the same. “The Sutras, as we have them, cannot be the original form of the doctrines of the several schools. They are rather a recapitulation, at a certain period, of preceding developments which had gone on in the works of successive teachors. The Sdtras mutfally refer to each other. Thus those of tho Sinkhya school which in itself I should consider ono of the ear- liest, distinctly refer to Vedduta tonets, They expressly montion tho Vaiseshika in 1. 25, v. 85: for the Nydya cf. v. 27. 86, and for the Yoga. 1. 90.” Cole- broke’s Essays. f. 354. n.

1 This opinion is common to all the systems, The goud and evil works

20

of souls are the cause of the existence of the world and of, all effects therein. The {Nydéya and Vaiseshika make every effort, however trivial, the result of these. The movement of an atom thongh but four fingers breadth, diroctly or indirectly affects without fail some sonl for good or evil in a groater or lesser degree. Fitz. E. Hall’s. Rofata- tion, p. 39.

8 I think this sentence should belong to the next paragraph.

8 Though they hold that the Veda is eternal and originated by none, yet the divinities named therein, are false and thoir mention made solely for the purpose of magnifying works. Thoir inconsistoncy docs not end hero. The Vedas state that honven is obtained by sacrifice; these sacrifices consist in offerings in five, clarified butter, flesh, &e., to Indra, Varnna, Agni and other deities whose existence they deny; nevertheless thoy bolieva the potency of the offerings gains them Elysi. um. See the exccllent argamonts of Pandit Nilakantha in De. Hall. pp, 67, 68.

154 - THE win dats.

four elements, the mountains, and the great seas lo be eternal. They believe that bodies are produced from an aggregate of minute atoms, and not from one substance; manas and dtman are all pervading, and @ man’s actions are the result of his own free will and initiative, and while granting the states of hell and heaven, and transmigration into lower and higher forms of being, and final emancipation, they do not believe that the latter is attainable by all men but is the result of the union of perfected understanding and action, and a sublime knowledge and an ineffable repose will be the eternal portion of that state.

The perception of sound by the ear, they believe to be one of the qualities of air. The Nyaya places it in-ether. The second of the two philosophers above-named teaches that samavidya, co-inherence, exists as eternal in things eternal and as non-eternal in things non-eternal, and everywhere separate, and they interpret it by the term tddditmya (identity of fiature). They reject visesha. According to Kumarila Bhatta and Murari Misra, there are ten predicaments (padértha): (1) substance, (2) quality, (8) action, (4) community, (5) identity of nature, and (6) negation. (7) Vaisishtya (endowment with attributes), is the term applied to the con- nection of non-existence! which they regard as a separaty évreAdxera, as the Nyaya regards Svaripa (true nature) and Sabda. (8). Sakti (energy) is a characteristic imperceptible to sight but efficient in action, like the property of burning in fire, and quenching of thirst in water. This they affirm to be two-fold; essential (jdti) as has been exemplified, and accidental, such as may be produced by incantation and the like. The Ny4ya school recognises the properties of burning and quenching of thirst as inherent in fire and water. (9). Sédrisya, similarity between two objects. (10) Sankhyd, number, is not regarded as a quality but as a distinct substance. Prabhdkara Guru reckons nine predicaments and excludes abhdva (negation) from the notion of things.

Kumiarila Bhatta acknowledges eleven substances, the nine already given and (10) andhakdra, darkness. The Naiydyikas, with the Guru and Murari Misra recognise the negation of light, but this school makes it a

1 See the Sarva DarSana. Sangr. Udayana tries to establish that although ether, the gite of sound, is impercep- tible, tho non-existence of that which abides in this site is perceptible. p. 194. For svartipa. See p. 134 of this volame.

% According to the Naiyfyikas, the non- intimate cause of the change effected in two or more atoms as regards the

operation of counting, is called number. By non-intimate is meant tho secondary cause, t.¢., the conjanction of threads in cloth, the intimate cause being the thread itself. Nuambers are prodaced by comprehending intellect which when destroyed, the numbers also are des- troyed,

THE win dss, 155

separate object of knowledge, which casts its shade over everything. Colour quantity, individuality, conjunction, disjunction, priority, and poste- riority, are qualities appertaining to it. (11) S’abda (sound) is considered eternal! and all-pervading. Letters are substance and possess the same qualities as darkness, except colour. Qualities are twenty-two in number. Prabhékara Guru and Murari Miéra do not hold sound to be substance, but acknowlelge its eternity. According to Kumérila Bhatta, intelligence operates like cognition arising from inferential reasoning. The Guru teaches that its own (indwelling) illumination proceeds from intelligence, as a lamp illumines itself while revealing other objects.? The

1 The Naiyéyikas deny this, assorting that it is non-eternal. The. cternity of the Veda depends on the Mimémsa doctrine that sound is eternal. The argnments pro and con are stated ab some length in the Jaimini DarSana, v. Sarva. DarSana-Sangraha.

& This ia more clearly put in the Vedanta Sara, .

“In the cognition this is o jar, the modification of the internal organ (chittavritti) which assumes the shape Of a jar, is directed towards the unknown object, jar, removes the ignorance which rests onit, and at the same time illa- minates it, though insentient, with the light of its own indwelling intelligence, The internal organ (i. e., manus) and ‘the light of intelligence abiding in it, both pervade the jar: then, the ignorance (covering the jar) disappears by means of the former, whilst the jar bursts forth by means of the latter. Just as the light of ag lamp, directed towards @ jar or other object standing in the dark, dispels the darkness enveloping it and by its own brilliance brings it to view.” Jacob pp. 97-98.

It should be remembered that with the Vedantists, intelligence always means Brahma. When appropriated to the internal organ, it is called the sub- ject of right notion. “ When an organ of sense, as the eye, impinges on an

object, the internal organ is said to evolve, to be emitted throngh the eye, to betake itself to the object and to be transformed into its shape. When it reaches the object, the intelligence ap- propriated to that organ becomes one with the object-intelligence ; and since the object is non-different from the ob- ject intelligence, it becomes one with the intelligence appropriated to the in- ternal organ, which intelligence ig the object of right notion.

This daes not, however, take place in inference, for inasmuch as, there, the object does not come into contact with an organ of sense, the internal organ is not thought to be drawn out to that object through an organ of sense. Consequently the intelligence and the object-intelligence do not become one, nor does the object’of inferenco becomo non-different from the subject of right notion. From this it is pluin that a portion of Brahma, designated as the object-intelligence, is considered by the Vodintists to be external to the beholder, and to take up a determinate space: in which portion of Brahma, a jar for instance, is imagined through ignorance to exist. Non-difference from tho sub- ject of right notion does not menn one- ness with it, bat the non-possession of an existence distinct from that of such subject.” In inference this does not

156 Tuk wistduss,

Migra holds with the Nyaya that it proceeds from the manas, This school does not accept the four kinds of proof ( pramdza) but only the two first, perception and inference.

The Naiydyikas say that gold has its origin in fire, the Mimamsakas, in earth. The notion of time with the former, is apprehonded by the reason, with the latter, by the senses, who also consider colour, among qualities, to be eternal, and each of the five colours in all diversities of position, to be one. Generality is innate in substance. They do not accept the notion of Vega Sauskdra, (velocity) and aseribe its effect to karman (action or motion).

According to Bhatta and Misra, pramdéna (proof) is of six kinds, four of which are the same as those of the Nyaya, and the senscs are said to be seven,! as they add tdmasendriya by which the quality of darkness is cogmized. They reject kevaldnvayin, (con-comitancy of affirmative) and kevala vyatirekin (concomitancy of negatives); and the Guru, mithydjidéna (erroneous opinion). Sansaya (doubt)* and viparyaya (misconception), are recognised as two forms of veritable knowledge. The Nniyayikas prove the existence of air from inference, the Mimamsakas from touch. The fifth kind of praméza is arthépatti (presumption), discerning the subject and assuming the predicate a

The sixth’ kind is anupalabdhi, non-perception of things. They assert that perception of the non-existence of things arises from the non- ‘knowledge of those things.’ The Misra like the Naiyayikas includes this in pratyaksha.

occur. See. Dr. Hall’s Refutation, pp. 4 According to Rajendraliéla Mitra the 184-5. six are: perception (pratyaksha), pre-

1 In various passages the number of corporeal organs is differently stated. The precise wamber is eleven, the five senses, the five organs of action, mind or the internal faculty including inte}li- gence, consciousness and sensation. The six commonly mentioned are the five senees with Manas, the internal organ.

8 Doubt is founded on the notion whether a thing is what it seems to be, as @ man or the stump of a tree; misconception is incorrect notion, as the notion of silver in mother o’ pearl.

8 That is, the assumption of a thing not itself perceived, bat necessarily implied by another which is seen, heard or proved. Colebrooke, I. 329.

sumption (arthdpatti), proportion sam- bhava), privation (abhdva), comprehen- sion (pratibhd), and oral communication (artihya). The word pramdna has a twofold meaning, liablo to Be con-

“founded, that of right notion and the

means of acquiring thit notion. As a function of the thinking principle, it is right notion and not evidence. Aphorisins of Patanjali, p 10.

5 The sophism aniupalabdhi-sama is the trying to establish a fact from the impos- sibility of perceiving the non-perception of it. For the Nydya on pratyaksha see Réer. p. 26,

THE mimiuss, 157

The cardinal point of their system lies in works, which ave of two kinds ; vihita (enjoined), a work productive of good, and nishiddhka (pro- hibited), resulting in pain. The first is again fourfold, (1) zitya (constant), that is, a daily duty, reprehensible to omit: (2) naimittaka (occasional rites)l, necessary duties at special times such as eclipses : (3) kémya (de- sirable), things done with desire of fruition: (4) préyaschit/a, expiatory acts. Of the nine schools, the first six recognize these obligations and carry them into practice to the prosperous ordering of their lives. A separate order of ceremonies is appointed to each of the four castes of men.

The questions comprised by this philosophy are set forth in twelve books. The first treats of the predicaments and of proof: the second, of various rites and certain elucidations of the Vaidic text: the third, of certain important cerelhonies the results of rites which are revealed in that sacred volume and other minor points accessory to the main obfects. The fourth, that the acquisition of worldy goods is twofold, personal comfort and (to procure oblations) for casting into the fire® (for sacrificial purposes). The fifth, of the order of various duties. The sixth, of the substitutes for various ‘rites. he seventh, of the detail of the cere- monies to be performed which are only briefly described in the Vedas. The-eighth is an exposition of dependent rites which are included in the performance of the primary. The ninth, a discussion of the mystic verses specified for a particular case in the sacred book, when quoted in a new connection, and hymn of praise. The tenth, the discussion of dependent vites which are precluded by non-performance of the primary rite. The eleventh discusses the occasion where one act suffices for the fulfilment of two (or more) acts, The twelfth, where the chief purpose of the rite is

One only, but has a further reference without express assignment.

pm a Ss Ne A a ee k Jacob in his translation of the Ve-

Ainta-Sara, illustrates “nitya ” constant

ites, such as the Sandhy& prayers

presses this meaning, that is, the ob- lations ‘such as butter, &o., which are part of the ceremonial of worship, and

and the likeg (which) cause ruin if left undone, and Naimittika, occasional rites, as the birth-sacrifice following the birth of ason, &¢ The prohibited things ave the slaying of a Brahman, &c:, which result in hell: and the “things done with a desire of reward” (kdmya) are Such as are done to procure heaven.

81 have no doubt that ‘casting into the fire (GASWS CS5U) is a translation of the Sanskrit GTA which exactly ox-

the ability to purchase these goods is one of the advautages of wealth. Abnl Fazl appears to assume in his readers a general acquaintance with the subjects he expounds, and the half lights under which he displays them, mislead and perplex.

8 This synopsis of the Mimémsaka treatise is very imperfect and would be unintelligible withont tbe aid of an exact and scientific summary of its con- tents. Fortanately this is furnished by

158 THE VEDANTA,

Vedénta. The founder of this school was Vydsa.t. The Hindus ascribe extreme

the Sarva-Darfana Sangraha or review of the different systems of Hindu philo- sophy by Madhava Achirya, translated by Messrs. Cowell and Gongh. This work was composed by the author in the 14th century, and it is not improbable that Abul Fazl may have been made acquainted with its purpose and ntilised its information. I quote from it the order and contents of the twelve books. In the first book is discussed the antho- ritativeness of those collections of words whick are severally meant by the terms injunction (vidht), “explanatory passage” (arthavdda), hymn (mantra), tradition (smyiti), and ‘name.’ In the second, certain subsidiary discussions (as ¢. 9., on apirva) relating to the difference of various rites, refatation of erroneously alleged proofs, and difference of perfor- mance (as in “constant” and “ volun- tary” offerings.) In the third, S’rutt “sign,” or “sense of the passage” (linga), “context” (vdkya), &c., and their respective weight when in appa- rent opposition to one another, the ceremonies called pratipatti-karméni, things mentioned incidentally (andra- bhyddhtta), things accessory to several main objects, as praydjas, &c., and the duties of the sacrificer. In the fourth, the influence on other rites of the prin- cipal and subordinate rites, the frnit caused by the juht being made of the butea foudasa, &c., and the dice-playing &c., which form the subordinate parts of the rdjastya sacrifice. Inthe fifth, the relative order of different passages of Sruti, &e., the order of different parts of a sacrifice (as the seventeen animals at the vdjapeyt), the multiplication and non-mnultiplication Of rites, and the respective force of the words of S’ruti, order of mention, &c., in determining the

order of performance. In the sixth, the the persons qualified to offer sacrifices, “their obligations, the substitates for enjoined materials, supplies for lost or injured offerings, expiatory rites, the sativa offerings, things proper to be given, and the different sacrificial fires. In the seventh, transference of the cere- monies of one sacrifice to another by direct command in the Vaidio text, and then as inferred by ‘name’ or ‘siga.’ In the eighth, transference by virtue of the cleatly expressed or obscarely ex- pressed ‘sign,’ and cases were no trans- ference takes place. In the ninth, the beginning of the discussion on the adaptation of hymns when quoted in a new connection (iha), the adaptation of sémans ard mantras, and collateral questions. In the tenth, the discussion of occasions where the nen-performance of the primary rite, involves the ‘pra- clasion and non-performance of the dependent rites,’ and of occasions where rites are precluded because other rites produce their special result, discussions connected with the graha offerings, certain sémans and various other things, anda discussion on the different kinds of negation. In the eleventh, the inci- dental mention, and subsequently the fuller discussion of tantra (where several acts are combined into one,) and dvdpa (or the performing an act more than once). In the twelfth, a discussion on prasanga (where the rite is performed for one chief purpose, but with an inci- dental further reference), tantra, cumu- lation of concarrent rites (semuchchaye) and option.”

2 This legendary personage, known also as Veda-vyaisa or divider of the Vedas, is represented in the Vishnu Purfna, as an incarnation of Vishnu.

THE VEDANTA. ° 159

longevity to him among nine other persons as follows: Lomaga, Markan- deya, Vyasa, Ashwatthama, Hanumant Bali, Vibhishandé, Kripa Acharya,and Paragurémo, and relate wonderful legends regarding them.

The professors of this important school of philosophy follow the Mimimsa in the definitions of paddrtha, and praména and other points, and accept the teachings of Bhatta, but heaven and hell, rewards and punishments and such other cosmical phenomena, they look on as a delusion uuder the appearance of reality. In some works there are two predicaments, (1) drik (discerning) = dtman (soul): (2) drisya (the visible creation). They allow of no existence external to God. The world is a delusive appearance, and as a man in sleep sees fanciful shapes, and is ‘ affected by a thousand joys and sorrows, so are its seeming ‘realities,

In overy Dwapara, or third age, Vishnn, in the .person of Vyasa, divides the Vedas which are. properly one, into several portions for the good of man- kind. He makes it fourfold to adapt it to their capacities, and the bodily form he assumes is known as Veda-vydsa. A nominal list of 28 of these Veda- vyasas are given in Cap. ILI of the V. P. He is also the reputed author of the Mahdbhirata, known to mortals as Krishna Dwaipdyana, and to the gods as the deity Nfréyana, for none else, bata deity was considered capable of the feat. The name of Badardéyana is also given to him. The principal tenets of the Vedanta are that God is the omniscient and omnimpotent cause of the existence, continuation, and dis- solation of the universe. Creation is an act of His will. Atthe consummation all things are resolved into Him. He is sole existent, “secondless, entire sempi- ternal, infinite, universal soul, troth, wisdom, intelligence and happiness. Individual souls emanate from Him like sparks from a fire and return to Him, being of the same essence. The soul is & portion of the divine substance. Cole- brook Miso. Egsays. Ed. Cowell. I. 394, The original Vedénta did not recog- nise -the doctrine of Méy4 or illusion,

which is alater accretion. It maintains, says Davies, the doctrine of a-dvaita or non-dualism as decidedly as Schelling or Hegel. All things, visible and invi- sible, are only forms of the one eternal essence (7d %&). Its basis is therefore a pure Pantheism. I refer the reader to Colebrooke’e Essays for an analysis of this as well as of the other schools of philosophy.

The nine persons alladed to, are sap- posed by the Hindus to be still living, and in the birth-day ceremony, they are still worshipped to obtain the gift of long life. Hanumant is Hanuméa, or the monkey king, a conspicuous figure in the Raméyana. Bali was a virtuous Daitya king whose devotion and aus- teritios humbled the gods and won for him the authority over three worlda. Vishya became manifest in his avatdra ag a dwarf to rescue the gods and res- train Bali. Ue obtained from him as a boon, three steps of ground, in two of which he stepped over heaven and earth, and in pity left to his dupe, the infernal regions. Vibhishana was younger brother of Révana, the ravisher of Sité. ParaSorama or Rf&ma, with the axe, is the sixth avatdra of Vishnu; v. Dowson, Class Dict of Lind. Myth. for these names,

160 + THE Vedanta,

One effulgent light conveys a multiplicity of impressions and assumes diversity of names.

The subjects of discussion in this great system are six: Brahman, I’swara, Jiva, (intelligent sentient soul), Ajidéna (Ignorance), Sambandha (relation), Bheda, difference. These six are held to be without beginning, and the first without end.

Brahma, is the Supreme Being; and is essential existence and wisdom and also bliss which is termed énarda. These three alone are predicated of the Inscrutable. Ajrdéna, Ignorance, in opposition to the ancients, is regarded as having a separate existence, and two powers are attributed to it. (1) wvikshépa-Sakti, the power of projection: (2) dvaranza-sakti,. the power of veiling the real nature of things. Sambandha is the relation of Ignorance with the first-mentioned. Bheda is the disjunction of these two.

It is said that Ignorance in connection with the first is called Méyd, or tke power of Illusion, and with the second, avidyé (nescience).

By the association of Illusion (mdydé) with the essential sanctity (of Brahma), a definite hypostasis arises which is called I’gvara in whose omniscience there is no defect. This Supreme Being in his association with nescience (avidyd) is called jiva (the soul) and also jzvdimd, (rational, conscious soul). Knowledge lurks behind the veil of concealment, and the dust of defect falls not on the skirt of the divine majesty. One sect believe that as avidyd is one, jiva can be only one, and these avor that none kas ever attained emancipation. Another sect, affirm thatas avidyd is distributively numerous, so likewise is jzva ; and that many of the wise have attained that accomplishment of desire which consists in the removal of ajidna (Ignorance) before-mentioned, by right apprehension. Ajndna has three qualities*: sattva (goodness), which is attended. with happiness and the like : rajas (foulness or passion), from which spring desire,

1 The power of envelopment is like a cloud obscering the spectator’s vision, and thus ignorance, though limited, veils the andorstunding and covers the Soul which ig unlimited and unconnected with the universe. The power of pro- jection makes a rope appear like a snake, and thus ignorance raises up on Sonl, which is covered by it, ether and the whole universe from subtilo bodies to the earth itself. Intelligonce associated with ignorance, possessed of these two powers, ‘ is, when itself is chiefly concorned,

the efficient cause, and when its asso- ciate is chiefly considered, tho matorial canse, as a spider in itself is the efficient cause of its wob. and in ite body the material cause. v. Jacob’s Vedintasara. pp. 52-53.

3 These guras are a mero hypothesis, according to Davies, invented to account for the manifest differences in the con- ditions of formal existonces. A subtle or spiritual element, one of passion or force, and something which is contrary to both, an elemont of dullness and

THE VEDANTA, 161

pain, pleasure, and similar effects : famas, darkness, which is accompanied by anger, dullness, love of case, and the like. ISvara, in union with rajas, takes the name of Brahma from whom, emanates the appearance of crea- tion. TSvara, in union with sattra, becomes Vishnu, whose office is the preservation of the created. Tévara united with tamas is Mahadeva, who annihilates what has been created. Thus the chain of creation is linked in these three modes, and all are unreal appearances produced by Ignorance.

Like the ancients they hold the elements to be five, but each is two- fold :—(1). siékshma, {subtile), imperceptible to the eye which is termed apanchikrita (non-quintuplicated!) in which the quality of famas is more ‘largely associated : (2). Ssthila (gross), the reverse of the other, and this is named panchikyita (quintuplicated). It springs from the greater admixture of foulness, and carried to a greater degree, receives the name of ether, the quality attaching to which is sound, and thas eon- sidered, air takes its origin which has the two qualities of sound and touch.? From predominance of goodness, fire is generated, from which proceed three qualities, the two former and form. From the greater

insongibility in, at least, all human in them. Then in those elements,

beings, is snppescd to oxist, and are assamed by Kapila in tho Sinkhya system to indicate a primary difference in the constituont olements of nature, an idea which may be traced in early Greek Philosophy. (cf. Aristotle Metaph, 1, 3.) In the Gnostic system of Valen- tinus, all mon and sabstances are divided into the spiritual, vital and material (Hylic), a classification corresponding to the guxas of Kapila and possibly bor- rowed from India, p. 37.

1 Literally “not becoming five by com- bination,” that is, radimentary, It is thus explained in Jnacob’s Vedinta- Sura, ‘’ From Intelligence associated with Ignorance, attended by its pro- jective power, in which the quality of insensibility (tamas) abounds, proceeds ether, from ether, air, from air heat, from heat, water and from water, carth, The prevalence of insensibility in the canao of these olements is inferred from observing the excess of inanimatoness

ether and the rest, arise the qnalities of pleasnre, pain and inaensibility in tho proportion in which they exist in their cause.” These are subtile, radimentary on non-quintuplicated elements. “ The gross elements are those made from combining the five (sabtile elements).

…. Then in ether, sound is manifested, in air, sound and touch, in heat, sound touch and form, in water sound, touch, form and taste, in earth, sound, tonch, form, taste and smell’? The process of qnintuplication is described lator by Abul Faz. .

8 Colobrooke observes that the notion of ethor and wind as distinct elements, scoms to originate in the assumption of mobility for the essential character of theone. Hence air in motion has been distinguished from the aerial finid at rest, othor, which is said to be all-per- vading, and by an oasy transition wind and motion come to be identified, like

ether and space.

162 THE VEDANTA.

proportions of goodness and foulness, water is manifested which has four qualities, the three former and savour. From excess of darkness, earth is produced, to which appertain the whole five qualities, viz., the four former and smell.

It is said that through the predominance of goodness, hearing is manifested from ether, tangibility from air, vision from fire, taste from water, and smell from the earth. These five are termed jadnendriya, organs of perception. From ether comes the power of utterance termed vich, (speech). From air, the power of the hand (pdni) is manifested : from fire, the power of the foot (pidak). From water, the power of evacuation, vdyu; from earth, urinary discharge, called upastha (7a aidota).

In each of the five, foulness, is predominant, and they are called karmendriya, organs of action.!. The majority of Hindu philosophers hold to these opinions.

® Through the predominance of saftva a subtile substance proceeds called antahkarana (the interior sense), which under four distinct states, has four separate names, That in which goodness predominates and where the in- tention of distinguishing and investigating enter, is called chitta (thinking- principle). Where foulness (or passion) has more prominence and doubt arises, it is called manas, (mind), and where the proportion of goodness exceeds to such an extent that certainty is attained, it is called buddhi (intelligence), and when through excess of darkness, it regards itself and attributes to itself what is extraneous to its own nature, it is called ahankdéra, egotism or consciousness.

From the non-quintuplicated elements, through the predominance of foulness, five vital airs are generated :—(1). prdna, respiration from mouth and nose:. (2). uddna, breathing upwards from the wind pipe: (8). samdna from the stomach :# (4). apdna, flatulence: (5). vydna, pervading the whole body. The ten organs (of perception and action) with antakkarana, (the interior sense) and the five vital airs, sixteen altogether, are called linga- sarira® or sukshma-sartra (the subtile frame). Some distinguish antah-

l The organs of action are the mouth, hand, foot, arms and organ of generation, the five organ of sense are the eye, the ear, the noxe, the tongue, and the skin.

2 This air is sapposed to surround the stomach which is the seat of the fire, supplying the heat of the body and con- suming the food. This fire is surround- ed and retained in place by the air called Bunvina, It is called by this name

because snrronnding tho navel it por- meatcsa cvorywhore (samantdnnayanit), v. Rajendralala Mitrf’s Patanjali, p. 153, where these airs are described in detail. These are not properly air or wind, but vital functions.

8 The soul whose desire is fruition is invested with a subtile person, towards the formation of which the ovolution of principles proceeds no farther than the

THE VEDANTA. 163

karana, the internal sense, as two in regard to (a) intelligence (buddht) and mind (manus), and (8) the thinking principle (chitta), with egotism (ahankéra), and thus make seventeen members.

This body is affirmed to exist in all animals, but by reason of its ten- uity is not apprehended by thesenses. A living principlé is generated which is cognisant of all subtile frames in their entirety, called Hiranyagarbha ! (golden womb, or fostus) and all that is generated erent is believed to emanate from this immaterial form.

The origin of the gross body is thus described. Each of the (five) subtile elements is divided into moieties, and each of the first five of the ten moieties is subdivided into four equal parts. The remaining (undi- vided) moiety of subtile ether, combined with one part from each of the other four subtile elements, air, fire, water and earth, produces the coarse or mixed element of ether. The (undivided) moiety of air, combined with one part of ether, fire, water, and earth becomes the mixed element of air. The (undwid-

elementary radimonts (non-qaintupli- cated), and according to the Sénkhya system ne referred to (without name) by Abnl Faz! lower down, has seventeen Principles. The grosser body with which @ soul clad in its subtile porson, is in- vested for the purposes of fruition, is composed of the five clements, or of four, and eveuof only one (earth), accord- ing to some authorities. The body is propagated by generation and is perish- able. The subtile person is more dar- able, and capable of transmigration throngh successive bodies which it assumes as a mimic shifts his disguises. It is primeval, produced by original nature at the initial development of Principles, ands is of atomio size. v. Colebrooke, 1, 257~58.

! This is the namo given to Brahm& (in the masculine gender) the intelligent 8pirit whose birth was in the Golden Mundane egg from which he is thus named. Mayé or the cosmical illusion, is fictitiously associated with Brahma from All-eteruity In the series of wons with- out beginning or end, the forms of life

have at the beginning of each seon ema- nated in, first ISvara, the unroal figment of the cosmic fiction, unreal to the philo- sopher, real to the ignorant multitude ; secondly Hiranyagarbha, the golden germ, or Prana, the breath of life, or Satritman, the Thread-spirit, which is the totality of migrating souls in the state of dreaming sleep. His body is the sum of invisible bodies, the tenuous involucra in which the soul passes from body to body in eternal palingenosia. The invisible bodies are made up of the cognitional, sensorial, and the aorial garments of the sonal. Within these as its first garment, the sonal is clad in the beatific vosture of the first prin- ciple of emanations, and the fifth is the tangible body of the world of sense. Three of those five wrappers clothe Hiranyagarbha. The third emanation is Viroj Vaisvianara, Prajipati or Parasha who is identified with the totality of waking consciousness, with the sam of souls in their waking state and their gross visible environments. See Gough’s Philosophy of the Upanisbads pp 53~55.

164 THE VEDANTA,

ed) moiety of fire, with one part of ether, water, carth (and air),’ becomes the mixed element of fire, and soon with water and earth. Others say that the mixed elements of ether and air are formed without the combination of fire, water and earth, but thatthe mixed elements of fire, water and earth are formed as described. Tach of these three is divided into two moieties; one moiety of each is left undivided and the other is divided into three equal parts, which are combined in the manner above stated, and thus these three mixed elements of fire, water, and earth are pro- duced : from these quintuplicated elements, by the predominant combina- tion of one of the threefold qualities (of goodness, foulness and darkness) the fourteen worlds* and their inhabitants are brought into existence. It is said, that a living principle is generated, which discerns all gross bodies. This is termed Virdt.3

The annihilation of the world ig thus described. The earth will be destroyed by water, the water by fire, the fire by air successively, and the air in its turn perishes in ether and ether in Maya or Illusion, and Ignorance (ajndna) with its results rises out of this Unreality, Three degrees of this (dissolution) are described. (1). Dainandina (daily), when the (close

L Omitted in text. The proportion is (spirit of hamanity) or Virdt: the former

four-eighths of the predominant element with one-eighth of each of the other four. The wonder is how it was dis- covered.

3 These lokas or worlds are Bhir, terrestrial; Bhuvar, the atmospheric sphere from the earth to the sun; Svar-loka, heaven ; ten million leagnes above is Maharloka, the inhabitants of which dwell in it through a day of Brahma : at twice that distance is Jana- loka where Sanandana and other pure- minded sons of Brahma reside: at four times the distance is Tapo-loka, the sphere of penance inhabited by deities called Vaibhréjas, who are unconsn- mable by fire. At six times the dis- tance is Satya-loka the sphere of truth, the inhabitants of which never again know death. Vishnu Purdna, 213. The remnining seven are the nether worlds. v. p. 32 of this volume.

8 “Intelligence associated with the collective aggregate is called Vaisvanara

because of the “conceit that it is in the whole of humanity, and the lattor because it appears in various forma. Vedinta-sira, Jacob, 65. The genera- tion of this emanation of the Supreme Being which directs the aggregate of bodies and exists in them as a form of intelligence, is described in Mann’s Ordinances, I. 32. ‘‘ Having divided his own body into two, he became a9 man by half, by half a female—on her that Lord begot Viraj.’ See the note in Wilson’s Vishnn Purdéna which treats at length of this compligated goneration and office.

4 This order of successive destruc.

tion is described at length in the last

book of the Vishnu Parinn Chap. VI.

with a different conclusion. The pri-

mary element of egotism is said to

devonr the ether, which is itself takon

up by intellect, which is seized upon by

Nature (Prakriti),

rd THE VEDANTA. 165

of) the day of Hiranyagarbha which is the same as that of Brahma, destroys the greater part of creation.! (2). Prdkrita, (elemental), when all creation is absorbed in ajidna (Ignorance). (3). Atyantika (absolute), when Ignor- ance ends and Right Apprehension sheds its radiance. The first kind has frequently occurred and will recur. The others happen but once, and Ignorance, with the constant recurrence of works and the co-operation of the wise of heart, together with the three principles* before mentioned, will be absorbed into non-existence.

This system of philosophy is laid down in four books. The first con- tains an account of Brahma: the second removes the (apparent) discrepan- cies between form and substance: thé third is the preparation of the soul for the reception of divine knowledge, and tho fourth on the modes, forms, fruit and effect of its attainment.

The Hindn sages have divided the Vedas into three portions. The first is the karmakénda (relating to works), the practical section teymed Pirva Mimdmsd, which has been briefly described as the third school. The second is the jadnakinda, the speculative section, called also Uttara Mimdmsd, celebrated as the Vedénta. The third is the Updsand (service) which is termed Sankarshana3 Mimamsa. This regards the worship of God under a personal aspect, and is not now extant.

They profess that the study of the Vedanta is not suitable for every person, nor are its mysterious doctrines to be heard by every ear. The in- quirer should accurately investigate what is eternal and non-cternal and discarding from his mind belief in the actuality of existence, he should zealously pursue the objects to be attained. He will then be no longer dis- tressed by the annihilation of sense-perceptions, nor be fettered by pain

1 The destruction of creatures, not 8 Sankarshana is Balardma, brother of of the substance of the world. The Krishna, and one of the incarnations of incidental or occasional dissolution Vishnu. Vasudeva, who is Vishnu, is is termed naimittika (sce p. 147) of this identified by the Bhigavata sect, with Vol. It is callgd incidental as occasioned Bhagavat the Supreme Being, who divid- by tho interval of Brahmé’s days, the ed himsolf and becamo four porsons by destruction occurring during the night. successive production, viz., Sankarshana, The elemental occurs at the end of who sprang from him direct, from whom Brahm4é’s life, and the absolute or final, came Pradyumna, and from the latter is individual annihilation and exemp- camo Aniruddha. Sankarshana is idon- tion from future existence. V, P. 630. tified with the living soul (jiva) : Prady- Dainandina-pralaya ig the destruction amna, with, mind (manas) and Anirnd- of the world after 15 years of Brahma’s dha with Ahankdra, consciousness. Cole- age. Monier Williams, Sansk. Dict. brooke, I, 440.

® Goodness, foulness and darkness.

166 HTIR VEDANTA.

and pleasure ; and will gain a daily increasing hope of final liberation.!

1 T extract from Pandit Nilakantha’s clear and well-ordered refutation of this system, which, if any, is the only sobeme of theology apart from mere caste cere- monial, aeeredited among the Hindus, the following precise of its inconsistent theories to illustrate the somewhat technical exposition of Abul Fazi.

The Vedantins argae three sorts of existence, the trae or transcendental (péramdrthika), practical or convention- al (vydvahdrika), and apparent (préti- bhdsike). ‘Tyne existence is that of Brahmé exclusively. The second does not geritably exist, only the ignorant or misapprehensive mistake it for existent and so transact practical life, whence the name; and as the things are supposed not to be veritably existent, so is it with the use made of thom as & necessary consequence. The third

kind resembles the practical in that:

it is false, but by mistake seems to be trae and differs from the practical in that (Ist), men do not constantly, bat only now and then mistake for veritable the apparent objects to which it apper- tains, as nacre for silver and matters of dreams, &. ; 2nd, there is no practical dealings With such things, as nacre of- fered for sale will not be bought for silver; 3rd, it is becuuse of ignorance that the practi¢al seem to be veritable, but it is through other eauses as dis- tance, &c., called defects, in addition to ignorance, that the apparent seems to be veritable. Monism or non-danlity ia essontini to the Vedinta philosophy. The soul is Brahma, and the world is false; hence Brahma is solely true and nought bat it exists, or has existed, or will exist. And the world is false not becanse ‘it is perishable, bat truly faise, as nacrine silver. Further, the ignorance that creates the imaginary

world, is itself ignornnce-imagined and henee false, and consistently, else non-duality, would be impeached. Thus they establish Brahma to be true and all else illusory, and two classes of objects to exist, the trne and untrue, and both really existent, only that an object of the first class is really real, and an object of the second, unreally real. A combination of two contradictories, . existence and non-existence, is thus predicated of their practical existence. Tho Vedantin ex- plains it thas :—Conceive true existence and practical existence as two stations : with a station intermediate. A person located at practical existence does not style its objects unreally real, for to his eye there is only one sort of existence, that in which he is. This is the posi- tion of the ignorant or misapprehengive. Again, a person located at trae existence would not designate its object, Brahma, as really real, for with him also there is but one kind of existence. This is the standiog-point of the Vedfntin’s Brahma, if it but possessed the cognition which it lacks. A person located at the intermediate station sees both existences, and is alone able to judge of them as they really are—the one really real, the other anreally so. This is the Vedantin who affects to understand Brahma better than Brahma under- stands himself. They sver that Brahma is aniversally diffased and over portions of him, the unreal world is actually produced. Brahma is its substrate and illusory material cause, and ignorance its material onnse. Hence the world is both false, and yet identical with Brahma, and this is explained by the analogy of nacre being mistaken for silver, a@ false siiver being actaally produced over the nacre. The latter is the sub- strate of the silver, and its illasory

THE SANKHYA, 167

Sdukhya.

The founder of this philosophical

system was Kapi-

material cause, while ignorance is said to be its material cause. But it is hot explained how a man mistaking nacre for silver, or a rope for a snake, has a false form before his eye and not nacre nor a rope. Therefore if the ignorant mistake Brahma for the world, it must be believed that this world -visible, tangible, unintelligent, change- able is Brahma, or in other words that it has these qualities. Granted that the name of the world is fajse, how can its form beso? But to concede this would be to give np non-duality. The con- coption of Brahma itself is equally bewildering. It apprehends no one, and nonght, and is apprehended of no one, for all apprehension is a modifica- of the internal organ, and Brahma never comes within its cognizance. It has no qualities. Itis neither the efficient vor the material cause of the world. It is constitutively cognition, yet cognizes nothiug, for cognition according to them, is a modification of the internal organ and Brahma’s constitutive cognition is not sach. The object abstracted, cog- nition is impossible, for as Coleridge observes “ Truth is correlative to being, and knowledge without a correspond- ent reality is no knowledge.” Again, when they say it is inapprehensible and ineffable, their meaning is not like

ours when wegnse such language regard-

ing God. We mean that God cannot wholly, they that Brahma cannot at all, bo known, nor described. Nothing that comes within the scope of apprehension igein any wise Brahma. This is ag accurate an idea of absolute non-entity ag language can express. Again they Maintain that the soul has beon from all eternity in the bondage of iusion. They dou not say that illusion or igno-

rance came into being at some parti- calar period and took the soul captive. For if it thas had an origiv, i¢ would be necessary to assign a cause, and even after emancipation it might incar the danger of being again made captive in consequence of the pro- diction of some new form of ignors ance. On this ground they allege that illusion has existed from all time, and co-eternally with it the sonal

. has been enthralled and will so con-

tinne till emancipated, but this can- not be reconciled with the positiovw that besides Brahma nothing has ever been, is, or isto be. Again Brahma, is in its nature, eternally, pare, intelligent and free. But the soul is Brahma, and yet having been in bondage to illusion must be impure and unintelligent. To obviate this difficulty, illusion is said to have the peculiar character of ex- isting and not existing. It cannot be said to be, inasmuch as it does not possess true existence. On the other hand it cannot be said not to be, inas- much as it possesses apparent existence, But thongh it has apparent existence, it has no real existence, therefore the doctrine of monism soffers no injary. At the same time possessing apparent existence, it is capable of taking the soul captive, bat as Mlusion is only ap- parent, so the soul’s bondage is prac- tical; that is, ag illusion is false, so is the sonl’s bondage false. Therefore neither was it ever actually fettered, nor is it now so, nor has it to be emauci- pated. It has been attempted to de- monatrate the accordance of this doctrine with the immaterialism of Berkely ; but Berkely maintains that objects of sense are only ideas, having no existence in themselycs apart from perception.

168 THE SANKIYA,

la. Some assert that the followers of this school do not helieve in God.

He does not hold that they are false. The perception of them constitates their existence, whereas the ordinary view is that they exist independently of perception. He does not say they are imaginations of eternal ignorance, nor suppose that on the attainment of right apprehension, the whole scheme of created things will disappear. Moreover in the Vedinta system, not only are objects of cognition, imaginations of ignorance and false, but cognition itself

is so, for cognition is a modification of |

the internal organ and not being Brahma, is ta,be regarded among falsities and imaginations of ignorance. Their ob- jects and their cognition are alike false. Similarly, thongh they call Brahma appropriated to illusion, Vévayva, thoy declare, that the contact of illasion with Brahma, is not trae but merely imagined ; therefore I’Svara is imaginary. Thus deep calls to deep, and one absurdity requires another to support it. The Vedinta system professes to be a theism, but its Brahma is neither creator of the world, nor its preserver, nor its lord, and has no attribntes. It is intelli- gence that cognizes nothing, and is bliss without fruition of happiness. A Supreme Being withont the realities of omnipotence, omniscience and pro- vidential rule over his creation, is not God. It cannot reward as he cannot punish. Sin and virtue are in a sense acknowledged from the stand-point of practical existence, but they count for nothing. The ignorant man may avoid sin and practice virtue, but right ap- prehension spurns both, having no rea- son to fear the one, nor motive for pursuing the other. In what docs this differ from atheism ?

’ Colebrooke suspects that this per- sonage was altogether mythical. He

is variously asserted to have been a son of Brahmi and incarnations of Vishnu and of Agni. The latter fable may be accounted for by the signification of the word kapila which besides that of tawny, bears also the meaning of fire. He is mentioned in the Purdnas as one of the great sages. Davies, in the preface to his exposition of the Sdnkhya system, creits him with being a historical personage, and says that he was born in Northern India before the date of Gantama Baddha. The name of a city called Kapila-vastn, (the tawny site) men- tioned in the Pali Dathavanisa as having been built by the permission of the sage Kapila, seems to be authority for this belief, but it may be also rendered, as Prof. Wilson remarks (If. 346) “the substance of Kapila,” intimating the Sinkhya philosophy upon which the fundamental elements of Buddhism are evidently based. His life and- times are however quite uncertain. Tradition makes him a recluse but ho survives only in the system connected with his name. This, says Davies, remains only a philo- sophical theory, preserved only ag an intellectual product understood and ac- cepted by a small inner circle of free thinking men. “The name Sdukhyd is derived from the noun which signifies ‘number,’ and the precision of reckoning observed in the enumeration of its prin- ciples, is aid to be the origin of the term as applied to this philosophy. The deri- vative moaning of reasoning or judgment, which the word also implies, points to the application of thig term to the exercise of jndgment which is jis characteristic, and this interprotation is supported by a passage of the Maha- bhérata (xii, 11409-10) which runs: ‘They exercise jndgment (Sinkhya) discuss natwre, and (other) twenty-four

THE ,SANKBYA, 169

The fact is, however, that they do not affirm the existence of a creator, and creation is ascribed to Nature (Prakriti), and the world is said to be eternal. All that is veiled by non-existence is not believed to be non-existent! but the caused is absorbed in the cause, as a tortoise retracts its feet within its shell, They accept the doctrine of freedom of will in actions, and of hell, of heaven, and the recompenses of deeds. With regard to emancipation, they agree with the Mimamsé. Proof (pramdna), is of three kinds.? They do not believe in the soul (diman).2 Analogy and comparison are not accounted sources of knowledge, nor are time and space, substances, but caused by the motion of the sun. The word éatéva (first principle) is used

principles, and therefore are called Sinkhya.” v. Colebrooke, I, 241.

This scholar observes thut the text of the Saénkhya philosophy from which the sect of Buddha seems to have bor- rowed its doctrines, is not the work of Kapila himself, though valgarly ascribed to him; but it purports to be composed by [varakrishna, who is stated to have received the doctrine mediately from Kapila, through succes- sive teachers, after its publication by Panchasikha, who had been himself instracted by Asuvi, the pupil of Kapila: I. 98. Max Maller and Oldenberg do not acknowledge the debt of Buddhism to the Sdnkhya philosophy, nor any definite similarity between them. Names ag eminent and more numerous, Cole- brooke, Wilson, Bournouf, Hodgson, Lassen, St. Hilaire, Weber, L. von Schroeder, Dr. Mitra are opposed to this denial, and lately Dr. Garbe in the pre- face to his translation of Aniruddha’s Commentary og the Sfnkhya Siitras, adds the force of his testimony to the stronger side, and adduces, ander the authority of Prof. Ernst f Loumann, the Jaina legend as placing Kapila before the time of Buddha and Mabé- vira. Dr. Banerjea agoribes precedence in date to the Buddhist doctrine.

1 That is, that the existent is produced from the existent only, as the Sankhyas hold, Thus, cloth is not distinot from

22

the threads as it abides in the latter. “ As the limbs of a tortoise when retract- ed within its shell are concealed, and when they come forth are revealed, so the particular effects as cloth, &c., of a cause, as threads &¢., when they come forth and are revealed, are said to be produced ; and when they retire and are concealed, aro said to be destroyed: but there is no éuch thing as the production of the non- existent, or the destruction of the exia- ° tent.” Sarva Darfana Sangraha. Cowell, Gough, pp. 225-26, and Oolebrooke, I. 266.

2 Perception, inference, and fit testi- mony. ;

3 It exists as pure inward light withoat any instrumentation by which it can become cognisant of the external world. This has been supplied, but it is foreign to the sonl and as objective to it as any form of matter. Like Kant, the Sénkhyas hold that there is no knowledge of an external world save aa represented by the action of our facul- ties to the soul, ond they take as granted the objective reality of our sense-per- ceptions. The soul ig different in kind from all material things, and will be finally severed from them by an eternal separation. Jt will then have no object and no fanction of thought, and will remain ‘self-existent and isolated in a state of passive and eternal repose, v, Davies, pp. 18-20.

170 TIE SANEHYA.

in their treatises for paddrtha, pf which there are twenty-five, and these are comprised under four heads. 1. Prakriti (Nature), which is evolvent and not evolute. (2). Prakriti-vikriti (developments of Nature), evolvent and evolute; these are of seven kinds, viz., mahat (the great one, Buddht or Intellect), ahankdra (consciousness or egotism), and the five tanmdira (subtile elements). 3. Vikriti (modifications), are evolutes only, and are not more than sixteen, namely the eleven indriya—(five senses, five organs of action and mazas) and the five gross elements (ether, air, light or fire, earth and water). (4). The fourth is neither Nature, nor modification, nor evolvent nor evolute, and is called Purusha,! that is Atman, the soul. The first of the principles above-mentioned is primordial matter, ty, which is universal, indiscrete, and possessing the modes of goodness, pas- sion and darkness. The fourth is viewed under two aspects, (a) the Supreme Being, as absolute existence and knowledge,? (b), the rational soul, omuij- present, eternal and multitudinous. By the union of the first and fourth, existence and non-existence come into being. Nature is said to be blind. It has not the power of vision nor of perception but only that of flux and veflux and the soul is regarded as a man without feet. When the two con- join, the renewal and destruction of life come into successive operation.

1 Identical with Atman. It is malti- tndinous, individual, sensitive, eternal, unalterable, immaterial. Colebrooke, I. 256. In the Bhagavad Gita, the Supreme Purusha ig the male creative power in the person of Krishna identified with Brahma. XIII. 22. Davies’ translation. From Nature (Prakriti), issnes the great principle (3fuhat, Intellect) and from this, consciousness or the Ego: from consciousness, the whole sixteen entities and from five of the sixteen, the five grosa elements. Davies, p. 54. In its primal form, matter is eternal and self existing. From it all things emanate except soxl which has an independent existence both a parte ante and a parte post, p- 17, The text bas incorrectly begun 4 new paragraph with the word dtman, Which should terminate the paragraph preceding,

2 The theistical Sénkhya, as opposed to the syatem of Kapila, understands by

Purusha, not individual soul alone, but likewise God (Svara) the ruler of the world. Colebrooke. I. 256.

8 A variant has WO W955] for WS 493 The union of the soul with Nature occurs as the lame monnts on the shoulders of the blind to direct him, depending on each other for conveyance and guidance. Nataro is the blind man for it cannot see and the soul is the lame one that cannot act. By this union of nature and goal, creation, consisting in the development of intelloct and other prin- ciples, is effected. The simile is the stock one in this philosophy. It is this idea of individual creation, says Cole- brooke, which gives to tho Sinkhyo an apparent resemblance to Berkeley’s theo- ry. The individual soul has been from eternity in continual connection with nature with the result of repeated cre- ations. Each sonl thus keeps on crert- ing its own world. The material ani-

a

• THE SANKHYA. : 171

At the time of clemental dissolution, the three modes (of goodness, passion and darkness) are in equipoise. When the time of creation arrives, the mode of goodness preponderates, and Mahat (Intellect) is revealed, and this is considered the first emanation, and it is separate for every human creature, Itis also called Buddhi, and is a substance, and the primary seat of eight states or qualities, viz., virtue, vice, knowledge, ignorance, absence of passion or passivity (virdga), from which springs perception of the nothingness of worldly things, and indifference ; aviréga its opposite: aiscarya, supernatural power acquired through austerities, and acts that seem incredible or impossible to human vision, of which eight kiuds are given in the Pitaiijala system: anaisvarya its opposite. Four of the above positive states arise from the predominance of the mode of goodness and the other four from that of darkress. From Mahat (Intellect),! procecds consciousness (ahankd*t). It is the principle of egotism and is the reference of every thing to self. In Mahat (intellect), when the mode, goodness predominates, it is called vatkrita ahanidra, modified conscious- ness, If under the influence of the mode, darkness, it is called bhutadi ahankdra (source of elemental being). If passion is in the ascendant, it be- comes taijasa ahankdra or impellent consciousness. From the first kind of consciousness, the eleven organs proceed, six of sense (including manas) ‘and fivo of action, as before described. From the second, the five tanmdtra (subtile elements), sound, tangibility, colour or form, savour and odour. These are regarded in this system as subtilo substances from which the five gross elements take their rise: from sound, ether; from tangibility, air; from form, fire; from savour, water, and from odour, earth. .-

From this exposition it is clear that the seven substances mentioned (intellect, consciousness, and the five subtile elements) are on the one hand evolvents, and on the other evolutes, and the sixteen, that is, the eleven Organs and the five gross elements, are evolutes. The soul (déman) is Considered neither evolvent nor evolute. The five senses are held to be Organs of perception, and manas discriminates between advantage and detriment. Consciousness cognizes itself by act or the omission of act, and intellec$ determines one or the other. From the five gross elements, other productions are ovolved, but as taftvas, are incapable of further crea-

tions, causality is not attributed to thom nn ee

Verse has, however, a separato existence 1 That is, nob the exaltation but the other than that which it possesses from predominance of self in thonght to the its connection with any particular soul, supreme conviotion of the sole subjective inasmuch as Hiranyagarbha, the per- personality of the thinker. v. Davies and sonified sum of existence, may be said Colebrooke,

to sum up in his ideal creation the sepa- rate subcreationus of all inferior beings. pb. 257.

172 THE SANKAYA,

The elemental order of creation is sixfold:—(1). svarga-loka, the world above, in the constitution of which goodness prevails: (2). mrityu- loka, (world of death), the abode of men, in which foulness or passion predominates: pdtdla-loka, the world beneath, in which darkness is pre- valent: devaid: (superior order of being) in which the element of good- ness is predominant. Through their extraordinary power they can appear in divers shapes, and assume astonishing appearances, and from the trans- parency of their essence their true forms are invisible to the sight. There are eight orders of these:—(1). Braéhmya, blessed spirits, that inhabit the abode of Brahma. (2). Prdjdpatya!: Prajépati is the name of a great divi- nity to whom is assigned a sphere, and those that dwell therein are thus styled. (3). Aindra: Indra, is the regent of the heavens, to whom a sphere is likewise referrible, and its dwellers are thus denominated. (4). Pattra?: the belief of the Hindu sage is that each individual’s progenitors that have died, after a life of good works, will receive celestial shapes and enjoy their recompense in a special abode. The devatds therein, are called by this name. (5). Gandharva: this is said to be a sphere where the heavenly choristers reside. (6). Ydksha: in this sphere the Yakshas dwell; they are great ministering spirits, the guardian of the north. (7). Rdkshasa, is a sphere inhabited by the Rdkshasas, who are the malignant fiends of these orders and who slay men. (8). Pisdcha: by this name an order of beings is defined who are characterized by an evil nature and perverted intelligence. They are less powerful than the Rdkshasas, and are assigned a special sphere, and extraordinary legends are related of each of these orders.®

1 Signifies belonging to or derived from Praja-pati and is a patronymic of Vishnu, Hiranya-garbha, and other deities. Pra- jépati or the lord of creatures, is an epithet in the Veda, applied to Savitri, Indra, Agni and others, and later toa separate god presiding over procreation, and identified in more recent hymns with the universe. It is also an epithet of the ten (according to some authorities, seven) lords of created beings first created by Brahmé. y, Monier Williams. Sansk. Dict.

8 Relating or consecrated to the Manes.

$8 An account of these various orders will be found in the Vishnu Pordoa. They are familiar names in Hindu theo- logy, and all are emanations from Brah-

m4 under various states of his curionsly complex organisation. In a form com- posed of the quality of foulness was prodaced Hunger, from whom Anger was born, and in darkness, Brahmé put forth beings of hideous aspect and emaciate with hunger. Such of them as exclaim- ed, ‘Oh preserve us,’ were called Rik- shasas, from Taq to prvserve; others who cried out “let us eat,’ were deno- minated Yakshas, from @wy to cat. Be- holding them so disgusting, the hairs of Brahm4 were shrivelled up and fall- ing from his head produced serpents and the like. His hair, however, was for- tunately for his comfort and appearance, renewed. The Gandharvas were born from him, imbibing melody, drinking of

THE SkNENYA. 173

The Animal creation (tiryagyonya)! is one in which the mode rajas (passion or foulness), prevailed at its production and is of five kinds :— (1). pasu, domestic animals: (2). mriga, wild animals: (3). paksh?, birds : (4). sarisripa, creeping things applied to the different reptiles and fishes : (5). sthdvara,s the vegetable kingdom. Madnushya, man, was produced through excess of the quality of passion. ‘he general opinion adopts this division and belief. At the dissolution of the world, these crea- ‘ tions perish with the five elements, and the elements are absorbed in the five tanmdtras (rudimentary elements) which again are veiled in egotism (ahankdva), and this in tarn is absorbed in the secret recesses of mahat, intellect, which is (finally) lost in the pure depths of Prakriti (Nature).

Pain is of three kinds :—(1). ddhydtmika, intrinsic pain, both bodily and mental: (2). édhidaivika, supernatural pain or calamity froma divine source, and (3). ddhibRautika, extrinsic pain arising from the natural source of the elements. Bandha, bondage, is the source of all that fetters dhe Spirit and debars it from emancipation.

Prdkritika signifies one who holds Nature (Prakriti), in place of God. Vaikritika* is one who from ignorance assumes the eleven organs (of action and sense), (indriya) to be the Supreme Being. Dakshina (religious offerixgs or oblations in general) implies the being attached to the perform- ance of works and believing them to be the ultimate aim of spirituality.

both the qualities of darkness and foul- ness predominated at this inauspicioas birth. Its products were termed arvdks- rotas from the dovnward current of their nutriment.

4 From vikriti, a production or deve-

the goddess of speech, hence their name at Wa Gémdhayantah ‘ drinking speech,’ Vish. Pur. Wilson, p. 39 et. seq.

Leis 53 (trijanja) is the almost anin-

telligible transliteration. This was the

fifth or animal creation. The compound is derived from the Sanskrit tiryck

(Fada) crooked or horizontal, applied to an animal (as not erect) and yout 3y faz

womb, or source. According to the Vishna Purdnogthe term Tiryaksrotas fcreoked-canal) is also applied, from their nutriment following a winding course. This was the fifth creation of Brahmé. Vv. p. 35.

8 ‘Yhis should include minerals, the Sanskrit term signifying fixed things. Ménushya is transliterated in the text ™Manishu.

8 According to the Vishnu Paréaa

lopment, as derived mediately from the first principle Prakyiti. 1 do not find these sects thus specifically named. The successive stages of creation are the nine 80-called sargas (creations), vis.,the Mahat, Bhita, Aindroyaka, Maukhya, Tairyak- srotas, Urddhasrotas, Arvaksrotas, Anu: graha, and Kaumara, or matter, the ele- menta, the senses, theearth, animals, gods, men, goblins and Brahmd’s sons. The three first are called Pr&ékrita or ele- mentary, and the six last Vaikyita or secondary, the elements being only made to assume Vikriti or a change of form, Wilson Essays, I. 148, The

174 THE SANKNYA,

They affirm that he whose mind is concentrated upon one object (of contemplation) and the fruition! of the celestial abode, if the subject of his absorption be the first-mentioned and his thoughts be thus continu- ously applied in efficacious devotion, he attains to the enjoyment of bliss in the sphere above for a hundred thousand manvantaras,? after which he returns to this world; in the organs of sense and action (indriya), during ten manvantaras, in the elements during one hundred, in consciousness (ahankéra), during ‘one thousand, and in intellect (mahat), during ten thousand, he enjoys the fruition of heavenly delights; after which term he reverts to this earth. A manvantara is one and seventy enumera- tions of the four ages.* For each good action a period of heavenly bliss is allotted : for instance, he who gives to a Brahman sufficient ground for the erection of a house, will be recompensed by ten kalpas in heaven, a kalpa being equivalent to four yugas. He who bestows a thousand cows in charity, pasces one ‘ror and 14,000 kalpas in paradise, and after numerous alterna- tions of earth and heaven, the severance between nature (Prakriti) and the soul (Purusha) is evolved before the vision, and right apprehension arises. This is the goal of emancipation and the renewal of embodiments ceases for ever.

terms Prakrita and Vaikrita are translat- 4 Thus the Krita Yuga 4,800. . . : Z Treta 8,600 ed by Wilson in the Vishnu Furey Teipaia” 2400 as primary and secondary (creation), Kali » 3,200 Kapila acknowledges a being issuing 12,000 yenrs of

from Nature, who is intelligence absolute,

the gods. source of all individual intelligences

By multiplying each of the above by 360, a year of men being aday of the gods, the total is 4,320,000 for a Maha- yuga or great age: this multiplied by 71= 306,720,000. According to the Vishnu Parana there is a surplus which Wilson shows to be the number of years required to reconcile two computations of the Kalpa. The latter is equal to 1,000 great ages or 4,320,000 x 1,000= 4,320,000,000. Butaday of Brahmé is also 71 times a Great Age, multiplied by 14: or 4,320,000 x 71 x 14= 429 £,080,000 or less than the preceding by 25,920,000 and it is to make up this deficiency that an addition is made to the computation mortals. by manvantras, See the V. P. p. 24. n. 6.

8 The text is wrongly punctuated. Abul Faz! makes a Kalpa to consist of There should be fall stop after oy. four Yugas only.

and origin of other existence necessarily evolved and developed. Yet that being is finite, having a beginning and an end, dating from the development of the universe, to terminate with its consum- mation, but an infinite being, creator and guide of the universe, he positively denies. Passages that seem to counte- nance the existence of God are inter- preted by Kapila to signify the liberated soul or a mythological deity or the sub- lime prodnuotion of the mundane egg. v. Colebrooke, I, 264.

1 Tread (otg,0lf for linls,

2 12,000 years of the gods or 4,820,000

THE SANKHYA. 175

This school also like that of the Vedanta, recognises two kinds of body, the linga sarira, or subtile frame, consisting of eighteen members, viz., the eleven organs of action and sense with manas, the five subtile ele- ments, with intellect and consciousness. The other is the sthila serira or gross body, and death signifies the divulsion of the one from the other, tho subtile frame continuing till final liberation.

The subjects of this system are treated iu sixty ¢antras which like the term adhydya! is used for division or chapter.

The first treats of the existence of Nature and the soul: the second describes Nature as one: the third,.shows the distinction between the soul and Nature: the fourth, that there is no effect without a cause: the fifth that Nature exists as the root-evolvent of all other forms: the sixth, that all evolved action must be associated with one of three qua- lities; the seventh, that the separation of the soul from Nature is attained through perfect knowledge: the eighth, the association of these two with Ignorance : the ninth, that in the light of perfect knowledge when Nature ceases from alternations of embodiment, if for a time the elemental form should continue to endure, it is solely through the residuum? of ignorance otherwise it would also perish: the tenth, that causality lies in Nature and not in the soul, and it treats of the five states of the five afflictions (klesu),

“viz, ignorance, egotism, desire, aversion and ardent attachment to life,’ as briefly alluded to in the Patafijala school. Twenty-eight topics treat of the defect of the twenty-eight faculties of the eleven zudriya, aud the soventeen injuries of Intellect.4 Nine topics treat of the nine distinctions of acquie- scence (tush{i):—(1). Prakriti-tush fi, (relating to matter ), concentration of thought on Nature and contemplation thereof, in the belief that Nature will increase knowledge and sever the soul from itself: (2). Updéddna- tushti (relating to means), the knowledge that Nature of itself will solve no difficulty, and that until the heart is detached from all objects, the

2 See p. 150. eafaarsfigat-ca-garta fre a: ag % See this translation of Sanskdra at HUE 0 RU p. 135, note. gThe meaning is, that by * Depravity of the eleven organs, attainment of perfect knowledge, virtue togothor with injaries of the intellect, and the rest become canseless, but the aro pronounced to bo disability. The

soul continues awhile invested with its body, as the potter’s wheel continues whirling from the effect of previous im- ness. From defect of instramonts thore

190, Oz “Edited ; ; pulse, Vide: Sankhya-Kariké, LXVII. are twenty-eight distinctions of diabi-

pare alae lity. Vide Colebrooke I, 277. translation These Soot in Chapter us. 8. oF of the Sinkhya Karika.

the Yoga aphorisms of Pataiijali in this

exact order.

injaries of intellect are seventeen by inversion of acquiesconce and porfeot-

176 TRE S{NKHYA.

end is not attainable: (3). Kdlatush{z, (relating to time), the notion that all desires are fulfilled by the passing away. of time, upon which therefore, the mind should be fixed while the heart is detached: (4). Bhdgya-tushti (relating to fortune) ; in the knowledge that to the many the world passes away and effects nothing, to understand that the solution of difficulties rests with fortune and to turn thereunto freeing the mind from all other attachment: (5). Péra-tush{i, withdrawal from all wordly unsub- stantial pleasures in the assurance that thousands have sought them with pain and profited nothing thereby, and hence to abandon their pursuit: (6). Supdra-tushti, to detach the heart’ from personal possessions, in the view that they have no stability, since tyrants may take them by force, and thieves may by cunning, steal. (7). Pdrdpdra-tushti, abstinence from picasures of sense with the knowledge that even if followed by personal gratification; they must cease, and to such as these, attachment is vain: } (8), Anutiamémbhas-tusht¢ detachment from all enjoymeuts, from con- sciousness of pain in their loss: (9). Utiamdmbhastusht{i, detachment from pleasure with the motive of avoiding injury to others.?

Eight tantras or topics treat of the eight perfections (siddhi) : (1). aha-siddhi (reasoning), without the necessity of reading to understand a subject by the light of reason: (2). sabda siddht (oral instruction), without need of teaching, to understand by the mere hearing of the words: (3). adhyayana-siddhi (study), becoming wise by the perception of truths : (4). suhridprdpti-siddhi, attaining knowledge by intercourse of friends: (5). ddna-siddht, (gift), serving one who accepts an invitation to a repast, or the bestowal of a gifton him, and manifesting a desire of knowledge and saccess in obtaining it.

1 See on this Dr. Richard Garbe’s .transiation of Anirnddha’s Commentary on the Sénkhya Sdtras. Vhese first four are termed by Dr. Garbe the sud- jective acquiescences, and are figuratively named by the commentator, water (ambhas), wave (salila), flood (oghe), rain (vrishti), respectively. The next three, ‘crossing,’ ‘happy crossing’ and ‘ most excellent crogsing,’ para, swpdra, pdra- para, together with the laat two ‘ex- cellent water’ (anuttamdmbhas) and ‘toost excellent-water’ (uétamdmbhas) belong to the five objective acquiescences. Dr. Garbe observes that all Sénkhya Commentaries have preserved these

strange terms without explanation. They are probably metaphorical expressions representing the passage of the soul across the river of existence, and are gradations of acquiescence rising in in- tensity from partial, te more .complete, and finally to absolute dethchment. The rationale all of these acquiescences is given by the commentator.

8 Three kinds of prevention of pain which would make up the eight, have been for some reason omitted by Abul Fazl, and he has accounted for only fifty-five out of the sixty topics. The remainder are partly included in those mentioned, and may be seon in Cole-

PATANSALA, Y7

Pétaijala. The founder of this system was the sage Pataiijali.!

brooke, and in Dr. Garbe’s translation of Aniruddha’s Commentary. In the lat- ter, the three first perfections are called tdra, sutdra, and tdratéra, mystical terms of the kind descriptive of the three acquiescences, of which the trae meanings are probably lost. The fifth perfection (ddna), accerdiug to Aniraddha’s cata- chrestical interpretation, is purification which means the clearing of discrimina- tive knowledge, as the word ddna is de- rived from the root dai b> ‘clear, but the root da has both the meanings given by

Abul Fazi to ddna, viz., liberality and ‘

instruction.

1 The accounts of this philosopher and grammarian are like those of the founders of the preceding systems, meagre and legendary. The period in , Which he flourished is disputed. Barth places him in the second century before Christ (Religions of India). Weber (Hist. of Indian Lit.) leaves it an Open question whether he is to be iden- tified with the anthor of the Mahd- bhashya, the great commentary on the grammar of Pénini, which Dr. Réjendra- lila Mitra anhesitatingly ascribes to him as “the noblest monument of pro- fonnd erudition, keen oritical acamen, of Unrivalled philological perception which has been left to us by any ancient author in any part of the world.” Weber des- Cribes him as 4n all probability connec- ted with the Vedio Kfpya Patamohbala, misled according to the learned Hindu doctor, by phonetic resemblance in the name. He is also regarded as a frac- tional incarnation of Vishnu. Some hints thrown out in his commentary by the sage himself, allow it to be inferred that his mother’s name was Gonika and his birth-place in the eastern country, and Goldstiicker in his essay on Panini,

23

shows that he temporarily resided in Kashmir. ‘He calls himself Gonardiys ; a word given in the Késiké to exemplify names of places in the East, His birth- place was therefore Gonarda, and he is regarded as one of the Eastern gramma- riang. All that is known of him in short is, that he was the son of a Brahman priest, devoted to literary studies and au- thor of two great works, his great com- mentary, and the Yoga Satra. Though he ig said to have lived after the time of Baddha, the Sénkhya and Yoga systems were current before the age of Buddha. Dr. Rajendralala evidences this from Bud- dha’s own notices. The meditations he practised were in accord with the rules of the Yoga system and their nomen- clature was the same. But though the antiquity of the system is undoubted, it is not the case with the text-books which are, of all the systems, of later date than Bnddha. The Yoga Sétra takes for granted the twenty-five categories of the Sfnkhya as the basis of its doctrine and copies some of its aphorisms ver- batim. I have previously mentioned the common references to each other of the text-books of theother schools. The car- dinal difference between the Sinkhya and the Yoga lies in their theistic and atheis- tio belief, and hence, it is that the Hindus call the Yoga the Sefvara Sinkhya or theistical, as opposed to the atheistical or Nirifvara Sdnkhya. Isolation from the thinking principle is the altimate aim of both, the Yoga attempting to reconcile the philosophy of Buddha and Kapila with a theistic religion. D. Mitra states that the Yoga text-book must be considered as posterior to that of the Sankhya, and both tater than Buddha, though the doctrine of the two schools are very old. He considers thom

178 PATANSALA.

With regard to the predicaments and the nature of proof and other points, he follows the Sinkhya, but he acknowledges a Supreme ‘Being whom he holds to be absolute existence and intelligence. The creation ! of the five subtile elements (¢anmdira), he believes to proceed directly from intellect (mahat) without the intermediate agency of ahankdra (cou- sciousness.) From vaikrita ahankdra (modified consciousness), when tho mode of goodness prevails, the five external senses are produced, and from taijasa ahankéra,® (ardent consciousness), when the mode of passion is pre- dominant, the five organs of action (karmendriya) arise, and from the combined influence of goodness and passion springs. manas er mind. Thoy believe that the subtile frame (sékshma sarira) is subject to ox- tinction, but receives new birth when another body is produced until final liberation is accomplished. But this is not attained without Yoga which is the cardinal doctrine of this attractive system. The thinking principle, Chifta3 is the substrate of manas. Vyittt (function), is the.action of manas

the immediate Hindu archetypes of the nihilist theory of Buddha, and indirectly of the pessimism of Schopenhauer and Hartmann. The term Yogais derived from the root Yuj which means both “to join” and ‘to meditate” and both meanings are adopted and explained by their several adherents. Technically it signifies detachment of thought from the world to concentrate it on the peculiar meditation which produces the detach- ment. It is also applied to almost every phase of devotion, and thirteen out of eighteen chapters of the Bhagavad Gita treat on the same number of separate Yogas. For a fuller account of this system than is givenin the following pages by Abul Fazl, I refer the reader to Dr. Ballantyne’s translation of the firet two chapters of Yoga Sutras and the more complete version and commen- tary of Dr. Mitra.

1 The punctuation in the text is in- correct and misleading and must be altered in accordance with the transla- tion. The physical substratum of con- acionsness is affected by the modes like every other emanation of Prakriti. From the influence of ‘ goodness,’ it

produces the ten organs and the manas which are called, ‘ good ’ because of their utility: but it is only when affected by the mode ‘darkness’ that inanimate matter is created. The passion-mode, (taijasa) ardent or glowing, being the exciting mode, must co-operate in the pro- duction of all. Davies, p.60. The Su- preme Boing with this system is a soul un- touched by affiiction, action, fruit or stook of desert, who of his own will assumed a body to create. Sarva Darfana San- graha. He facilitates according to Dr. Mitra the attainment of liberation, but does not directly grant it and though the creator of the world is absolutely unconnected with it.

8 In this sense tejas and rajas aro synonymous, vide. p. 17 where taijasa ahankdra is the result of rajas; vide also Oolebroke, I, 261.

8 This is the same ns the Sfinkhya mahat and the Buddhists buddhi, or what Schopenhauer understands by Will, the absolute existence from which pri- mordial root al) organic and inorganic being proceed. Dr. Mitra thinks the term would be better interpreted by Will

PATANIJALA. 179

in the acquisition of good and evil qualities. Nirodhu (suppression) is the restraint of those functions in action and the attainment of quiescence.! Yoga or meditation is then secured when the foot of desire is obstructed from advance. Certain means to this end are laid down, and L here make a brief abstract in the hope that it may prove of value to the heart-stricken in the path of search. It is said that through the union with Mahat (Intellect) of manas and the three qualities, five conditions or states of the thinking principle arise which are called the five stages (bhumz). These are, (1). kshépta, (restless activity ),* the heart from the predomin- ance of passion being never at rest: (2). miédha (bewildered ), from excess of darkness, being quiescent without attaining the object sought® (3). vikshipta (voluptuousness), from excess of the quality of goodness, the goal is reached and. a certain repose is secured, but through excess of passion (rajas), this is not lasting, and the mind becomes dissipated ; (4). Ekdgra (concentration), through excess of goodness, power is “ob- tained to keep the mind from wandering from the subject of meditation: (5). Niruddha (the suppressive state) is & condition in which by dissolu- tion of the three qualities, the mental residue (dvéprqors) of active volition are effaced and (those of) the quiescent or suppressive state arise.*

than by the thinking principle which is of all functions with their residua., In

the definition of Dr. Ballantyne: v. Pre- face vii. It ig defined lator by Dr. Mitra ag the form of goodness without taint: Yogi Aphorisms, 4.

1 Or more literally, the effacement of the reverting residua (of mental im- pressions). I suspect that (gs is in- tended to represent the Sanskrit “ Sans- kéra,” Vitti ov Pravritti, signifies the employment of the senses or orgaus on Sensible objects. (Colebrooke I, 406.) Nirodha ig the suppression of this fune- tion. bd

2 According to Dr. Mitra, the object of the revorsed ordor of conditions ig that unless activity is made intelligible, ho suppression of it can be grasped. The object of placing the quality of goodness last is this, that by its excess the two subsequent conditions become fit for Yoga. By concentration or Yoga, the external functions cease and oa that Cessation there is a complete dissolution

both these conditions Yoga is practica- ble. Yogn aphorisms pp. 5-6.

8 Interpreted by Dr. Mitra, as addic- tion to evil actions without distinguish- ing between what should be done or not done. 7

4 Trend le) for L5. ‘This defini- tion of the suppressive state seems to apply to what is called ‘“supressivo modification (nirodhaparindma) thus de- fined by the Parichchheda Bhishya : “the residua of the waking state are the aitribates of the thinking principle, bat they are vot intelligent. The residua of suppression produced by the intelligence of the suppressive state, are also the attributes of the thinking principle. On tho overthrow and sno- cess (prevalence) of the two, the residue of the waking stnie are prt down and tLose of the suppreasive state rise up, and there is thon 2 correlation of the thinkisg principle, aud the chanyes

180 - PATANJALA.

Under the first three conditions, Yoga or meditation, is rarely ob- tained. They assert that under the first condition manas is the recipient of unrighteousness: under the second, of ignorance; under the third, of sensuousness (avirdga) and impotence (anaisvarya) ; under the fourth, of virtue, (dharma), absence of passion (virdga), and supernatural power (aisvarya) ; and under the fifth, the residua of good and evil are suppressed and functions (vrittz), are dissolved. These latter are of two kinds, klishi (painful), tendency to evil works, and aklishti, tendency to good works and each according to its good or evil tendency is five-fold. (1). Pramdna-vritti (right notion); perception of things by proof is atiained through prevalence of sattva (goodness) ; (2). viparyaya, (mis-conception) - arises from prevalence of goodness and darkness. If this abides in the person forming a definite conclusion it is called vipartti, (perverted) but if ho be in uncertainty whether a thing be itself or some thing else, it is called sansaya, doubt; (3). vikalpa (fancy)’, ambiguity regarding a thing, arising from goodness and darkness: (4). nidrd (sleep), the state of sleep arising from excess of darkness in which consciousness is lost. The opinion of other Hindu philosophers is that the mind is withdrawn from its pecu- liar association with the senses: (5). smriti (memory), is the recovery through the influence of goodness of what has passed from the mind. In the fourth state, the second, third and fourth functions cease and in the fifth, the first and fifth are dissolved and final liberation is attained.

Although this sublime contingency does not occur save by prosperous fortune and the divine favour, yet the sagacity of the experienced base its acquisition on twelve principles.

I. Meditation on the divinity (Isvara-updsand), that is, to iNuminate

thus constantly occurring in a thinking principle is suppressive modification.” Dr. Mitra observes that although there is no stillness of the thinking principle

tury, the Realist side of the controvesy with Plato and Aristotle, sgainst tho Nominalists with Zeno.

1 “A notion without reference to the real charactor of the object”. I repro- qualities, nevertheless this modification is duce the term and dgfinition of Dr. called stilior motionless. “The theory is,” Mitra. he continnes, “that every image, shape, 2 The aphorism is, “sleep is that

when affected by the functions of the

or idea exists from eternity in a latent form, circumstunces make it manifest, and when those circamstances are over it reverts to its former condition.” This ia in fact the Platonic notion of ideas, and their objective reality either ante rem ag oternal archetypes in the divine in- telligence or in re, as forms inherent in matter, This formed in the 12th cen-

fanction (of the thinking principlo) which has for its object the conception of nothing;” that this is a function of the thinking principle and not a mere blank is said to be proved by our recollection on arising from sleep of having slept well whioh conld not hap- pened without a consciousness of it Yoga. Aph, 12.

PATANJALA. ~ 181

the interior spirit by constant thought of God and to be conscious of its freedom from four things, afflictions, works, deserts, desires. Klesa (affliction) signifies the sum of grief. and pain, and this is five-fold» (1). avidyd, ignorance of the reality of things: (2). asmitd (egotism,) con- ceiving oneself to possess that which one ha¥ not: (3) rdga, desire for one’s own gratification: (4). dvesha, aversion, or anger; (5) abhinivesa (ardent attachment to life), fear of death! Karma (works), signifies merit and demerit (from works). Vipdka, (deserts), the recompense of actions. Agaya, thought regarding merits and demerits which after effacement may recur,

Those who have reached the goal in this path, assert that assiduous meditation on God after this manner, annihilates all evil propensities and exterminates nine .depredators of the road. These are (1). vyddhi sick- ness: (2). stydna tlangour), indisposition (of the thinking principle) to efficacious work: (3). sansaya; doubt regarding the (practicable) nteans of meditation and its results: (4). pramdda (carelessness), forgetfulness of the duties of meditation: (5). dlasya slothfulness in the performance of these duties: (6). avirati, (worldly mindedness), propensity (of the thinking principle) to enjoy the pleasures of the world: (7). bardnti-darsana, error in perception, (such as mistaking mother of pearl for silver): (8). alabdha-bhinmikatca, (non-attainment of any stage), the non-attainment of the fourth out of the five states: (9). anavasthitatva (instability), not abid- ing in the fourth stage and receding from it.

Il. S’raddhd,* (inclination), zeal in following the Yoga and making it the sum of desire.

Ill. Virya (energy), seeking the fulfilment of the object sought, with much eagerness.

IV. Smryiti (memory), sctainingin in view the transcendent advantages and great results of this devotion, and never relaxing attention.

V. attri (friendliness), desiring the welfare of humanity.

VI. Karund, (compassion), being distressed at the sorrows and afflic- tion of mankind, and resolving to relieve them.

vin ir uditd, (gladness), being pleased in the happiness of eihiets:

VIIL. Upekshd, (indifference), avoiding tho wrong-doer lest evil prin- Ciples be acquired, and yet not entertaining malevolence nor rebuking him.§

4! That ig the fear arising from the or evil, not at once manifesting thoir re- memory cf pain endured in a former sults but remaining latent to a subse- life. A’écya is accopted in the aphorisms quont life. as the equivalent of udsand and sanskdra, 8 The text has Suddha. I follow the that is, the unconscious impression in nomenclature of Dr. Mitra. the mind of past actions producing plea- 8 This indifferouce is to be acquired

sure or pain according as they were good both ag to pleasure and pain, by friond-

182 PATANIJALA.

IX. Samddhi, (meditation), unity of intention and contemplation of one object.

X. Prajad (discernment), allowing only understanding, rectitude, and the search after truth to enter the mind.

_ XI. Vairdgya, (dispassion), is of various kinds, its ultimate stage being detachment from ail, and contentment with only the Supreme Being.

XII. Abhydsa (exercise), being unintermittingly assiduous in the con- trol of knowledge and action till this (steadfastness) becomes habitual.!

In the works on this system, I[vara-updsand, vairdgya and abhydsa are treated together: five separate expositions are allotted to virya, sraddhé, smpitt, samddhi and prajia, and the four following maztri, harund, muditd and wpekshdé are likewise separately discussed. They have all been con- currently reviewed in this work.

Tn this field of philosophy, Yoga is regarded as two-fold, (1) sampraj- ndtawamddhi (conscious meditation), directing the easily distracted mind to one object and gradual concentration on the ideal conception of the Divine Being; and (2) asamprajrdta (unconscious meditation ), in which this ideal conception of the divinity ceases, and absorption in unitive com- munion with its essence is ‘obtained. The first is of three kinds, (I) Gréhya-samdpattt (Tangible Forms), meditation on one of the five gross elements. With regard to the gross and subtile. elements it is two-fold. The latter is termed vitarkdnugati, (attendant argumentation) and the former vichdrdnugati, (attendant deliberation), Vitarkdnugati is of two kinds; savitarka (argumentative meditation), when the cogitation is re- garding the relation of words to their meanings, and nirvitarka (non- argumentative), when it is indepergent of this relation. cogitation on one of the eight princi and the five subtile elements. Ifthe element be considered in its relation to time and space, it is celivd savichdra (deliberative), and if otherwise nirvichdra® (non-deliberative ).

Vichdrdnugatt is viz., nature, intellect, consciousness,

liness towards the happy, compassionat- ing the sorrowful, being content with the virtuons and neither encouraging nor roproving the vicious. This condition of mind facilitates the meditation called Samadhi, in its external aspect by remov- ing distractions, and producing concentra- tion, through cheerfulness of mind.

1 Exercise ig the repeated effort that the thinking principle shall remain in

its fanctionless state. Aversion from

sensuous objects is prodused by ‘ dis- passion’ resulting from the knowledge of tho evil inflnonoe of those objects on the thinking principle, and steadfastness is acquired by exercise which makes it a source of happiness and quict, and by the conjoined effect of the two, the functions of the thinking principle are suppressed. Yoga. Aph. pp. 13-14.

z phe text has by misprint yle? ys for set».

PATANJALA. 183

Il.- Grahana-samépatti (Acceptance Form), is cogitation on ove of the orgavs of sense which with reference to time, space, and cause is termed savitarka, and if in regard to the inherent meaning only, vitarkea, and both kinds are called Sdnanda (joyous).!

HUI. Grihitri-samdépatti (Form of the taker). In this stage the votary ‘withdraws himself from all other pre-occupation, and is merged in the single contemplation of the Supreme Souk. This also in relation to time and space receives the two names above-mentioned, and both kinds are termed Asmita (Bgotism).

Asamprajndta is two-fold :—(1). Bhavapratyaya (caused by the world), not distinguishing Nature from the soul, nor holding it to be separate from the elements or the organs of action and sense. If Nature is cognized as soul, this meditative state is called Prakritilaya (resolved into nature), and if the elemerts and organs be so cognized, itis tormed videha, (un- embodied). (2). Updya-pratyaya (means of ascertainment) ; by good fortane and a happy destiny, under the guidance of the twelve principles above- mentioned, the cognition of the soul is attained and the fruition of bliss secured at the desired goal where final emancipation presents itself to view.

The devotees of the Yoga practice are of four classes. The first, called Préthama kalpika, (entering upon the course) is he who with firm resolve and steadfast foot enters upon this waste of moftification. The second, Madhu- bhimika (in the honey-stage), is he who by mortification of the senses and right conduct, effaces rust from the mirror of the heart to such degree that he cau divine the reflections in another’s mind and see whatever from its minuteness is imperceptible to others. The third, Prajrijyotis (illuminat- ed), by happy fortune and zealons endeavour subdues the organs of senso and the elements, and the far and the near, with reference to sight and hearing, &ec., become relatively the same to him, and he acquires power to create and destroy. The fourth, Atikrdnta bhdvantya (attaining the highest dispassion), is one to whom the past becomes present.

It is said that conscious meditation consists of eight particolers and these are, ast were, intrinsic parts thereof, in contradistinction to the twelve principles which are accounted extrinsic means. They are called Ashtdnga-Yoga (meditation on eight particular parts of the body), These are:—(1). Yama, (2). Niyama, (3). Asana, (4). Prandydéma, (5). Pratyahéra, (6). Didrana, (7). Dhydna, (8). Samadhi.

1 Phe commentator explains that when pondered, then consciousness boing under the qnality of goodnegs of the internal the influence of goodncss, becomos organ, tinctured with a little of the Sdnanda or joyous. Yoga Aphorisms

Walities of fonlness and darkness, is P. 18,

184 PATANIALA.

Yama, restraint, is five-fold:—(1). Ahinéd (non-slaughter),! avoiding destruction of life and injury (to others). When this habit is formed, in a devotee, enemies are conciliated : (2). Satya (veracity) is the habitual practice of speaking the truth, and thus securing acceptance of his desires*: (3). Asteya, (n@n-theft), the non-appropriation of goods beyond what is customarily permitted: the kéys of the world’s treasures are entrusted to the observer of this principle: (4). Brahmacharya (conti- nence), to abstain from women, by which means the ignorant will be able to light the lamp of knowledge from the inspired efficacy of his will. (5). Aparigraha (non-avarice), retaining nothing of worldly goods which, being regarded as the capital source of pain, should be abandoned and by this the future will be revealed.

Niyama (obligation), is also five-fold :—(1). -Saucha (purification), internal and external’ purity, avoiding association with men, and acquiring self-control; (by this means) the mind is rendered essentially stainless, commendable desires bear fruit, and the fourth state is reached: (2). Santosha (contentednéss), desisting from improper desires and being satisfied with the fulfilment of this excellent devotion. Happiness is thus obtained and worldly pleasures have no relish: (3). Tapas, (pen- ance), mortification of the spirit and body and enduring heat, cold, hunger, thirst, and silence, until all five afflictions are effaced from the tablet of the mind. Through this practice the votary gains the faculty of seeing things distant, concealed or minute, and can assume any form at will. (4). Suddhydya* (sacred study), repetition of the names of the deity, and recount- ing his attributes and all that is conducive to liberation. If there is inability to read, then by the constant repetition of the word Ozkdra’, the deities and other celestial spirits associate with him and vouchsafe him their assistance. (5). I’Svara-pranidhdna (devotion to God), is absolute resigna- tion to the will of God; by this means various faculties of knowledge are acquired and illumination regarding all the degrees of perfection is attained.

1 The reason for this negation of the prohibited deed being set down instead of the deed itscif is that as, slaughter should be avoided at all times, its absence implied by non-slaughter, is first men- tioned. Yoga Aph. p. 92.

• Another reading rans ‘ and thus desires cease to be inclined to evil.’

• External purity means the cleansing of the body with earth or wator, &€., and the internal isthe washing by means of

friendliness and the like, of all dirt from the thinking principle. Yoga Aph. p. 94. Tread oT 5! for out

• The word proporly signifies the atudy of the Vedas, bat is here used in the technical sense of the inaudible repetition a great many times, of some-

• selected mantra or mystical verse. Yoga

Aph. 101. 5 The abbreviated form of this ejacu- latory preyer, Um, is a combination o

THE PATANJALA, 185

Asana (posture), significs sitting. The austere recluses of this temple of retirement, give the number of these ascighty-four, of which thirteen are esteemed the most efficacious, and each bas a special mode and a separate name. Under their influence, cold, heat, hunger and thirst are little felt. Some learned Hindu authorities rf&kon the same number of sitting attitudes for those who are still attached to worldly concerns but of a different kind. The writer of these pages who has witnessed many of these postures, has gazed in astonishment, wondering how any human being could subject his muscles, tendons and bones in this manner to his will.t

Prandyama, regulation of the breath at will, is three-fold.—(1). Péraka (inspiration), drawing in the breath by the nose in the following manner: with the thumb, -of the right hand let the left nostril be closed and the . breath slowly inspired by the right nostril. (2). Kumbhaka® (suspension),

e

three leti@rs a, a, m, invested with o peculiar sanctity. According to Wilson (Vish. Pur.) it is typical of the threo spheres of the world, the three steps of Vishnn, &c., and in the Vedas is said to comprehend all the gods, and one text of the Vedas, “Om, the monosyllable Brahma,” is cited in the Vaya Pardna, which devotes a whole chapter to this torm, as signifying by the Jatter word, either the Supreme Being or tho Vedas. collectively, of which the monosyllable isthe tpye. Barth (Religions of India), states that each of these three letters represent the Brahman, the absolute, in hia three manifestations of Brahma, Vishnn, and Siva. Ho observes that the sectarian writers interpret the Triad conformably to their own predilections, one of the parsons, eithor Vishnu or Siva, being identified with the Saprome Being and the other two, espcoially Brahma, playing a subordinate part.

1 Dr. Mitra mentions 8,400000 as the number practised or recommended by Gorakshanftha, a Yogi of great renown. The names of gome of these sufficiontly indicate their contortions and perhaps their atility, the Staff, the Bodstead, the Seated Heron, the Seated Elephant, the

24

Seated Camel, the Cow’s mouth, the Fowl posture, the Tortoise, the Turned Tortoise, the Lion, the Lotas, the Bow- string and the Peacock. The latter is assumed by holding the ground with both hands, placing the elbows on each sido of the navel and keeping the body erect. The Cow’s mouth is produced by crossing tho right and loft ankles on the left and right sides of tho chest, bat tho favourite with the Yogis is the Lion, in which the ankles being crossed under the seat, the hands are placed on the knees, the fingers extended, the mouth wido open, and the eyes directed to the tip of the nose in deep contemplation. The Yoga aphorism recommends such postures as ensure steadiness and com- fort. It would require considorable practice before any degree of either could be appreciated by the sittor in theso attitndos, but as the aim of the Yoga meditation is the suppression of the thinking principle, thore is fortunately no montal strain, and the physical diffi- culties alone have to be overcome.

2 This term is derived from kumbha, a jer, because the vitul air at that time remains quiescent as water in a jar. Dr. Mittra observes without iucredulity

186 ‘ THE PATANJALA.

to retain the broath within and to make as long an inspiration as possible closing both nostrils with the thumb and little finger of the right hand. The ascetics of this country can so hold their breath that they will breathe but once in twelve years. (3). Rechaka (expiration), letting oub the drawn breath, very gtadually, with the thumb pressed below the right nostril and removing the little finger from the left nostril, suffering it to escape. In short, to inspire with the right and expire with the left nostril. These three functions constitute the Prdpdydma, It is said that the breath extends as far ag sixteen fingers from the nose, and some say twelve. By this operation the mind is quiescent, and perfect knowledge is obtained ; but this is secured only through the assistance of an experienced master of this knowledge.

At this time the devotee should abstain from meat, hot spices and acid and saline food, and be content with a little milk and rice. He must also

• avoid the society of women lest bis brain be distracted and melancholy ensue.

Pratyéhdra (abstraction), is the withdrawal of the five senses ftom their respective objects of perception. When the mind is quiescent, these per- force cannot escape. Thus objects may present themselves before him without exciting desire.

Dhdrana (steadiness), is the confinement of the thinking principle to one place, such aa the navel, the crown of the head, between the eye- brows, the point of the nose, or the tip of the tongue.

Dhydna (contemplation), is uninterrupted reflection on what is be- fore the mind, and the absence of every thing but the object, the thought, and the thinking principle of the individual contemplating.

Samddhi (meditation); in this the thinker and the consciousness of thought are both effaced. At this stage the degrees of conscious meditation are surmounted and unconscious meditation begins, till perfect knowledge is attained and Yoga is finally reached. This condition is called Samadhi!

The first and second of these eight processes are likened to the sowing of seed in a field: the third and fourth are as the commencement of growth: the fifth is the flower ; the sixth, seventh and eighth,are regarded as the stages of fructification.

or suspicion that when perfect control hag been attained in this respect, the Yogi can live buried under earth for months and years without performing any organic functions whatever. No doubt much depends on the word when.

1 This isa more advanced stage of contemplation than Dhydna in which

the ideas of other objects other than the one in view are suppressed, but not alto- gether effaced. In samddhé the offace- ment is complete, and thinking merges into thought which is the sole residuum. The body is then in a state of catalepsy or trance, and is not influenced by exter- nal objects : v. Yoga Aph. p. 124.

THE PATANJALA. 137

The last-named three-fold acts are termed Sunyama.! At this period, the most extraordivary powers are witnessed in the adept which astonish the beholder.

The occult powers are termed Azsvarya and are eight in number.

(1). Animé (molecularity), the power of minute disintegration so as to pass through the tissues of a diamond. (2). Mahimd (illimitability), capacity of prolongation so as to touch the moon. (38). Laghimd (tenuity), to possess such extreme levity as to ascend to the upper regions on o beam of light. (4). Garimé (gravity) to acquire illimitable ponderosity. In some works the word Prdpti* (accessibility), is used for the fourth term, and signifies to reach to any point at will. (5). Prakdmya (irresistible will), to sink into the earth and to rise up elsewhere as if in water. (6). Isitva (sovereignty), the power of creating or destroying. (7). Vasitva (subjugation), to comma the elements and their products. (8). Kamdvasd- yttva (self control), the fulfilment of every wish.3 . 4

Although this language may seem incredible in the eyes of thoso af- fected by the taint of narrow custom, those who acknowledge the wonderful power of God will find in it no cause of astonishment.

The doctrines of this great system are comprised in one Adhydya or section, divided into four charana,‘ (feet or) chapters. The first is au exposition of the nature of Yoga meditation. The second on the means of its acquirement. The third, on the wonders of the occult powers. The fourth on the liberation of the soul.

? The word is derived from the inten- sive particle sam profixed to yama, restraint, and means vow, binding or confinement, and indicates three means of accomplishing the Yoga. @

Yoga. Aph. p. 125,

® Prdpti is substituted for Mahimd in Dr, Mitra’s Yoga Aphorisms.

® The snppression of all carnal desires, Thid. p. 121.

4 According to Dr. Mitra, yada, which has tho samo meaning. The number Of the aphorisms is 194,

The relation of modern spiritualism tothe Yoga has been noticed by Dr. Mitra who regards it as based on this doctrine. The etornity of the soul ig acknowledged by both: both recognise t course of gradual progress which has

porfection for its goal ; the powers of com- manding departed souls to be visible to, and to hold converse with, man; tho re- gulation of breath and other exercises to attain occult powers of the most transcen- dental kind ; the projection of body toauy place at will and the like. Thore is how- ever, & difference in the motive of their acquisition of these powers, the mode of life of the Yogi ascetic precluding the idea of material comfort as their object, whilo it is the profession of the mediam and his source of daily bread. Apart from the domonstrative and experimental sciences, of which the law is progress, the archetypes of most modern disco- vorios in the fiolds of motaphysics and nataral theology, will bo found in India and Grecoe.

188 : JAINA.

Jaina. The founder of this wonderful system was Jina, called also Arhat! or

1 The Jainas take this name from the term Jina, a deified Saint, a being worthy of universal adoration and having sabdned all passions, equivalent to Arhat, Jinésvara, Tirthankara and other synonyms of this incarnate being. Colebrooke (Essay II, 171) mentions 21 Jinas or Arbats, who have appeared in the present Avasarpini age, 24 others who have appeared in the past Utsar- pini period, and 24 others who will appear in the future. The genealogies of the 24 of the present period are brieffy given, bat, will be read rather for curiosity than instraction. Their stature varies from 500 to 15 poles, and their daration of life between 8,400,000 and 100 great years. The Avasarpini and Utsarpini ages together equal 2000, 000, 000, 000, 000 oceans of years. An ocean of years is the time that would elapse before a vast cavity filled with chopped hairs could be emptied at the rate of one picce of hair in a century: the time requisite to empty such a cavity measured by a Yojana every way is apalya and that repeated 1000 000, 000 000 000 times is an ocean or Sdgara. The most celebrated of the Jinas, was PirSvanitha of the race of Ikshwika, and is thought by Colebrooke and Lassen to be the real fonnder of the sect. Io was born at Bénirasi in Katti- wir and died according to the Kalps Siitra, a work of great authority among the Jains, 1289 yoars before the date of that book, which Colebrooke calou- lates was composed about 1500 years ago, thoagh Weber will not admit a date ear- lier than the twolth or thirteenth century. The last, Jina, was, Vardhamana, named also, Vira, Mahavira &c., and surnamed Charama tirthakrit, or last of the Jinas, euiphatically called Sramana, or gaint.

His life and institutions form the sab- ject of the Kalpa Sitra translated both by Stevenson (very faultily according to Weber,) and Jacobi. His death according to tradition, occurred more than 2400 years ago or 250 years after tho apotheosis of the preceding Jina. Colebrooke dis- cusses and rejects the opinion that the religion and institutions of the orthodox Hindus are more modern than the doc- trines of Jina and Buddha. Barth ob- serves that viewed hs a whole, Jainism is so exact a reprodnction of Buddhism that there is difficulty in accounting for both, their long existence side by side and tho cordial hatred between them. The Jainas maintain that Gantama Buddha was a disciple of their founder, and their 24 Jinas correspond exactly with the 24 predecessors of Buddha the last of whom, like the last Jina, was of the royal race of KaSyapa. They dony with the Banddhas or Saugatas, tho divine authority, of the Vedas, and admit like the Sankhya philosophy, the eternity of matter and the perpetaity of the world. Their avoidance of in- jury to life is wellknown, and the Jaina monkg usually bear a broom to sweep insects out of their way lest they should unconsciously destroy being. They distinguish five kinds of bodies or inro- lucra connected with the soul at various periods of its eternal qxistence. The soul is never completely separated from matter until it obtains a final release by deification through disengagoment from good and evil in the person of a beati- fied Saint. Intermedinately it receives retribution for the benefits or inja- ries if has given or inflicted in proce- dent existences, receiving pain or pleasure from the same individual it had thus affected. Liko the Buddhists

u

Avbant.

JAINA, 189

With regard to the Supreme Being, and the doctrines of volun-

tary actions, rewards, punishments, hell and heaven, they follow the Mimdmsé and the Sankhya. In Svar-loka twenty-six degrees are assigned

they are divided into a clerical body, Yatis or ascetics, and Inity, Sravakas, (hearers) and observe the rules of caste without attaching any religious signifi- cance to it.

In the south of India, according to Wilson (Essays I, 335), the Jainas pre- servo the distinction of castes : in Upper India, they profess to be of one caste, the Vaisya, but the admission to the Jain commanion was originally inde- pondent of it, Mahavira, their object of worship, was himself the son of a King and therefore a Xhsatriya; his chief disciples were Brféhmans ; his especial attendant, GoSfla, was an ont- enste, and his followers of both sexes were of” every caste. They have adapted themselves to the prevailing form of Hinduism at various places. Jain in- scriptions at Aba begin with invocations ‘of Siva and Dekhan Edicts of Bukka Raya of Vijayanagar proclaim their identity with the Vaishnaras, A Jain on renouncing his sect, takes his place as a Kshatriya or a Vaisya, among ortho- dox Hindus, and their priests are re- craited from the Bréhman caste itself. Barth observes that it is to them and to the Buddhists that the first Htorary cultnre of thee Canarese and Tamil langaages can be traced. Before the tonth centuary they were the dominant easto in tho Dekhan, bat at the presont time they are reduced to very inconsider- able nambers. In Western India they are generally wealthy and given to trade. In Haziribigh District where the sanc- tuary Pérasnath is still an object of pilgrimage, they number about 5,000 fouls among a Hindu population of

nearly 6,50,000. (Stat. Acct. of Bengal XVI, 82). Into the disputed question of the origin and development of the religion and its kinship with, or descent from, Buddhism J] do not enter. Hermann Jacobi in his preface to the Jaina Sutras, with Colebrooke and Stevenson asserts the independent rise of the Jaina creed against the combined authority of Lassen, Wilson, Weber and Barth, His argaments though ingenfous are not convincing. Other scholars have entered the lists and the contro- versy is undecided. - Weber rightly lays , much stress on the fact that Rijagriha was the scene of Mahavira’s labours as well as of those of Baddha, and he con- siders that the whole tenor of M&havira’s legend strengthens the conclusion that it is bué a varintion of that of Buddha. (v. Fragment dor “Bhogavati p. 194. i » and 241, and introduction to Vol. Y). In his contribution to the Indian Antiquary on the sacred literature of the Jains, he again deliberately states’ his conclusion that the Jains are one, thongh the oldest, of the Buddhistic sects. Tho number and significance of common features in both traditions in roference to the life and iabours of their founders, out-weigh any arguments that mike for the contrary opinion. The Jain texts it is to be remembered, were codified in writing 1,000 years after the denth of their founder ; an interval which allows considerable scope for the camulativo forces of tradition. Weber thinks it marvolious that the texts, in the face of sach a fact, contain so much that is ori- ginal, The wonder is rather that thore is not more,

190 ‘ JAINA,

to the last mentioned abode (heaven) in threc groups of twelve, nine and five, in the highest of which dwell the most perfect among tho chosen of God. Bodies are believed to be compounded of indivisible atoms. The four elements are composed of homogeneous atoms, and the substrate of each element is different. The world regarded in its atoms is eternal, but non- eternal in its form. Existence takes place on the union of five principles :— (1). Niyata (crude matter) potentiality of cause. (2). Kdla, determinate time: (3). Svabhdva inherent nature. (4). Aémd the rational soul: (5). Pérvakrita, the result of good and evil in former births, Some Hindu philosphers ascribe the creation to God, some to Time, and others to the results of actions, and others again to inherent nature (svabhdva). Their belief is that the whole universe will not perish, but that some of every kind will survive from the whirlwind of non-existence whence creation will bo renewed.

” This sect allow only two predicaments :—Pramdna (proof) and Prameya (objects of thought). The first of these is two-fold :—(1) Pratyaksha, percep- tion by the five external senses, and by the mind and the soul. The Nyaya,

“applies this term to the means by which perfect knowledge is obtained. (2). Paroksha (imperceptiblity), knowledge obtained not mediately through the senses.

Pratyaksha (perception) is two-fold. (I). Vydévahdrika ! (conventional, or practical) : this is acquired by the five senses and manas, is employed in external affairs, and called matt-jiana (mind-knowledge). This is also two-fold, namely, that which (a) is apprehended through the five sen- ses, and (8) apprehended through manas (mind), which this sect does not include among the fiye senses ; and each of these two againis four-fold: (1). Avagraha, distinguishing from the type whether it be horse or man but not discerning the characteristics: (2). I’ha inquiring, as to whence the man, and from what country the horse: (3). Avdya arriving at a correct identification of the above: (4). Dhdrana, recollecting the thing particularised and keeping it in mind. (II). Pdérdmdrthika (transcendental), knowledge that comes from the illumination of the rationgl soul and is profitable to emancipation. It is two-fold; viz. Vikala (defective), know- ing some thing and not knowing some other: and Sakala, (entire), knowing all, called also Kevala-jrdna (pure unalloyed knowledge.) Vikala is again subdivided into Avadhi-jrdna (limited knowledge), knowledge of special objects which near or remote, are not differentiated ;? and Manas-

1 ho text has two variant readings 2 That is, the abolition of hindrances and 4 prefix of Sdém to Vydvahdrika. causes their right intuition.

JAINA. 191

parydya-jrana, actinite knowledge of another’s thoughts and the laying bare of the secrets of the heart.!

Paroksha (imperceptibitity) is five-fold. (1). Smarana,*® recollection of what is unseen. (2). Praty-abhijadna, knowledge derived from the witness of another. (3). Tarka, the knowledge of the mutual relation be- tween subject and predicate. (4). Anumdna, knowledge from inference, which is established in o series of ten terms, given in detail. (5). S’abda, the knowledge obtained from the narration of o speaker without partiality or affection, of clear understanding and true in speech.

Prameya (objects of thought) are six-fold and each is regarded as an eternal substance, and not an aggregate of a determinate measuro of atoms ; they are likewise held to be imperceptible to the eye and pervade all space. The first is the soul which isa subtile substance in which intelligence abides. It is to the body as the light of a lamp to a house and is believed to be the active agent, or passive recipient of good and evil. Tt is, of two kinds, Pardtmd and Jivdimd. The first is restricted to the Supreme Being and is distinguished by four attributes. Ananta.jadna or analytic knowledge extending to the most minute atoms. Ananta- dargana or synthetic knowledge of things collectively. Ananta-virya, infinite power. Ananta-sukha, infinite happiness.

They do not accept the doctrine of divine incarnations but believe that a man by virtue becomes omniscient, and his utterances in regard to the things appertaining to the spiritual and temporal life are the word of God, and such a one is termed Sdékdra-Paramesvara (Divinity in bodily form). In the six aras,8 of which mention has been made in a previous

1 By the absence of all envy, by sym- Pathy and the like.

2 Abul Faz) writes thie word Suma- rana and many of his translitorations Qre in Hindi or Prékrit e. g. biddiya for vidya as eat p. U1. hroughoat this exposition of Hindu philosophy I have adhered to the proper Sanskrit Spelling.

8 These are the six periods into which each of the Utsarpini and Avasarpini ages nre divided. Their names are given in Major Mackenzie’s account of the Jaing in Vol. 1X. As. Resoarch, p. 257. These two great ages revolve for ever in ascending and descending periods

like the increase and wane of the moon. In tho dectining period men pass from extreme felicity to extreme misery ; in the rising period this order is revorsed. In the first agos the lives of men extend to oceans of years and their stature to longues, and they subsist on the fruit of miraculous trees that yield food, apparel, light, habitation and the necessarics and ornaments of life. In tho fourth age the limit of lifo decreases to 10 million years, and their stature to 500 poles. In the fifth, one hundred yearsis the normal age and the limit of stature is soven oubits. In the sixth, it is re- duced to 16 years and tho hoight to one

192 \ JATSA,

section, twenty-four such beings come into existence, and in the third and fourth, their earthly existence terminates.!

The first being of this series was A’dindtha, and the last, Mahdvira. Each of them is named a Jina, and wonderful legends are told of them which will be briefly noted later on. The Supreme Being is called Mirguna Paramesvara, or the Deity without qualities.

Jivdtmé, (soul) is variously distinguished. It may be two-fold, -viz., locomotive and immovable, as a man or a tree: or three-fold, as man, woman, hermaphrodite: or four-fold namely, forms of men, of vegetable life, of beings of heaven, and those of hell: or five-fold, possessing but one sense,* as the four elements and trees. And these also are of two kinds ; (1). such as can be seen, (2). such as are too minute to be perceptible. Hach of these (last) five possesses life and has the sense of touch. There are those that possess (at least) two senses,® touch and taste, such as shell-fish, lee- ches &c.;those with three, as the ant which has the additional sense of hearing: those of four, viz. flies and wasps which to the above three senses, add that of sight: those of five, mankind. There is a further divi- sion of soul into two kinds; those possessing an internal sense and such a3

are without it, as a leaf.* The Nyaya school also hold this opinion. Since

cnbit. In the next period the saccession of ages is reversed and afterwards they recommence as before. Colebrooke.

1 This passage is doubtfal in the text and | am not sure of my interpretation, but in Colebrooke’s catalogue of the 24 <Arhas their apotheosis occurs at various periods of the third and fourth ages,

The periodical creations and destruc- tions of the world form part of the Panranic legends and of the Jaina creed, The heavens and earth in general, are supposed to be eternal, bat this portion of the earth, Arya or Bharata, is liable to destraoction and renovation. Itis des- troyed by a poisonous wind after which a shower of fire consumes the whole region. It is restored by a shower of butter, fol- lowed by one of milk, and another of the juice of the sugarcane. Men and animals migrate from the other five regions into which Jambu-dwipa is divided and inhabit the new Arya or Bharata-kinda.

The inhabitants of five of the Kdndas are called milechchhas or barbarians. Bha- rata-kénda is divided into fifty-six provinces (desas) or antara-dwtpas, v. Dr. Bachanan’s notice of the Jains. As. Res. IX, p. 282.

2 Namely, touch, see the Sarva Dar- Sana Sangraha, p. 51.

8 This is applicable to the “locomo- tive” trasa, as distinguished from the immovabie, (sthavara).

4 More correctly, the division of souls is into ‘mundane’ and ‘relensed.’ The “mundane” pass fromzbirth to birth and are divided into two, these posbess- ing an internal sense (samanaska) and those dostitute of it (amenaska). The

, former possess samjnd, the power of

apprehension, talking, acting or receiving instruction, and the Jatter are without this power. These last are again divided into the locomotive and immovable. Those that possess only the one sense of tonch are considered as ‘released,’ as

JAINA. 193

the first and fifth are of two kinds, animal life collectively does not exceed seven, and each may be classed under two heads: (1) Prajd-pati possessor of six powers, namely, of bodily form, of reception of food, of organs of sense, of she powers of speech of breathing, and the internal sense (manas) : (2) Aprajé-pati, life which is incapable of these functions. All that possess but one sense, have four faculties, viz., capability of nourishment, assuming form, command of the organs of sense, inspiration and expiration of breath, All that possess two, three, four or five senses, without the internal sense, have five faculties, viz., the four former and that of speech. Those that possess the internal sense have six faculties.

They consider the conjunction in the soul of ten qualities, entitles it to be called liviug, otherwise it is dead ; they are severally called praza,! viz. the five senses, the internal sense, faculty of speech, reception of form, inspiration of breath, dusntion of life. Those that possess five senses are of four classes. (1). Devatdé (celestial spirit) ; (2). Manusha (man); (3). Néraki (inbabitant of the infernal regions); (4). Tiryagyoni (animal creation). The Devaié is formed of a subtile luminous substance by the volition of the Deity, without the process of birth. Their bodies are not of flesh and bone, nor defiled by impurities, and their breathings are redolent of fragrance. They suffer not from maladies, nor does age steal away the freshness of youth. Whatever they desire is fulfilled; they can assume a thousand shapes, and they move at four fingers’ breadth above the surfaco of the earth. They are of four classes :-—

1. Bhavana-pati. The Jainas believe the earth to consist of sevon tiers

• 8uperimposed one above the otlier. The earth inhabited by mankind in- Cludes a space of 180,000 yojanas. The intérvening region between one thousand yojanas and as many below, is the location of the Bhavana-patis.

They are of ten® orders, each governed by two rulers, one for the cL ee

incapable of passing into any other state of existence. Among the latter are the souls embodied in earth, fire, water and air and are only perceptible when an infinite namberwf them are pnited. They possess but the one organ of tonch, have undeveloped (avyakta) intellect and feel- ings (vedand) but no limbs. Water-lives are divided into the sentient, senseless, and mixed. Only that water which is the abode of senseless lives can bo used, therefore water must be strained, after which process only the senseless lives remain. v. Sarv. Dar’. Sang. and Jaco- Lis Jaina Sdtras, p. 5. 2. 25

1 In its primary signification vital action and chiefly respiration. In a secondary acceptation, the corporeal organs of sense and action. These aro variously stated from seven to thirteen ;

“gee Colebrooke I, 380-81.

& These ten are the progeny of Asuras, Serponts, Garuda, Dikpdlas, Tire, Air, the Ocean, Thunder and Lightning, who are supposed to reside in the soveral hells or regions below the earth. Tho Vy- antaras, have eight ordors, These are tho Pigséchas, Bhitas, Kinnaras, Gan- dharvas and other monstrous divinities inhabiting woods, and the lower regions

194 JAINA.

northern, tho other for tho southern region. The colour, appearance, raiment, food and modes of life of cach are separate. Their dyration of life extends between a minimum of ten thousand and a maximum of an ocean (sdgara) of years, and this is considered the lowest order of al}.

2. Vyantara. These inhabit a region extending between a thousand yojanas above and a hundred below, and they pass likewise into the sphere allotted to men. They aro of sixteen orders, each governed by two rulers. Their age extends from ten thousand years to one palyopéma.!

3. Jyotishka. Their location is seven hundred and ninety yojanas above tke level the earth, and one hundred and ten yajanas is its complete* limit. They consist of five orders (of luminaries), the first are stars: the second, suns throned at a distance of ten yojanas above the stars: the third are moons, eighty yojanas higher than the suns: the fourth, cons- tellations of twenty-eight mansions: the fifth, plancts at an altitude of four yojanas above the mansions, eighty-eight in number. Of these the five most important are Mercury, Venus, Jupiter, Mars and Saturn with an interval of three yojanas in altitude between them severally. Tho duration of life of each of the five, ranges between the eighth part of a palya at the lowest, to one palya and a hundred thousand years as an ex- treme limit.

4, Vaimdnika. Their abode is the highest of all, and they are of two orders. The first, kalpupapanna, (existing age), dwell in twelve zones of heaven each with a special presiding deity, but four have (only) two regents. These ten principalities possess ten illustrious distinctions, (1) a just prince, (2) a capable minister, (3) a benevolent sage, (4) loyal - counsellors, (5) sword bearers, (6) guards, (7) commanders of seven armies of elephants, horses, chariots, bulls, footmen,? sword players and

and air. Tho third has five ordors, the the universo. A great number of Indras

Sun, Moon, Planets, Asterisms and other hoavenly bodies. The fourth includes tho gods of present and past Kalpas. Of the firat kind are those born in the Heavens Saudharma Fédna, Mahendra, Brahmd S matkumira, 8’nkra, &c., to the nambeor of twelve. Tho Jost class resido in two divisions of five and nino henveng, the five termed Tijaya, Vayayanta, Jayanta, Apardjita, the middle being Sarvdrtha- Siddha: the second termed Anuttara, because there aro none beyord them, as they crown the triplo construction of

are recognised, but S’«kraand Iédna tho regents of the North und South are the chief. Above all these rank in dignity as objects ¢£ worship the twenty-four Tirthankaras or with those of the pnst and future periods, soventy- two. Wilson (Essays 1, 320)

1 Or palya, vide n. p. 188.

8 W993. I render with misgiving what I take to be a Sanskrit adjective in con- stractions with a Persian noun.

8 The izsdfat aflor wsky must be

Qe

JAINA. 19

musicians, (8) administrators of state, (9) news reporters, and (10) sweepers. This sublime order is said to dwell at a little less than the distance of a rdjul in altitude. The second order is kalpdizta (past age). They do not occupy themselves with others, but keep aloof from friend- ship, enmity, governance and subjection, and are engaged only in con- templation of the Deity. Above these again are twelve abodes of rest in nine tiers,? one above another, and five others like a face, two above, and one below and one between, making fourteen tiers in all.

They consider the world to be composed of three spheres.§ (1), Manusha-loka, nine hundred ygyjanas from the lowest extremity of the earth to nine hundred above. This is tke sphere of men. The earth is said to be one rdjz in length and the same in breadth, and within 4,500,000 yojanas of this space, mankind dwell. Below this is (2). Patdla-loka, Its extent is nine hundred yojanas‘less than seven réjus, The second is twice the size of the first, and to cach tier is added a réju so that the seventh is séme-

omitted if seven armies are to be made out of this disorderly aggregate.

1 A measure of space through which the gods are able to travel in six months at the rate of 2,05,7152 Yojanas of 2,000 KroSa each in the twinkling of an eye. Colebrooke, IJ, 198. bat Abul Fazl gives anothor measure lower down.

2 Tho nine tiers reprosent a necklace (graiveyaka).

8 The world, writes Colebrooke, (Essays II, 198) which according to the Jains is eternal, is figured by them as @ spindle resting on half of another, or as three cups of which the lowest is inverted and the uppermost meets at its cireumforence tle middle one. They also represent it as a woman with her arms akimbo. @ Her waist, the mecting of the lower cups, is the earth. The apindle above, answering to the superior portion of the woman’s person, is the abode of the gods, and the inferior part of the figure comprebends the infernal regions. Tho earth which they snppose to be a flat surface, is bounded by a circle of which the diameter is ono rdjr. The lowor spindle comprises seven tiers of inferior earths or helis, at the distance

of a rdju from each other and its buse is measured by seven rdjus.

These seven hells aro Ratna-prabhd, S/arkard-prabhd, Bdluka-parbhd, Panka- prabhd, Dhiimd-prabhd, Tamaprabhé and Tamatamaprabhéd, The upper spindle is also seven rdjus high and its greatest brendth is five rdjus. Its summit which is 4,500,000 yoanas wido, is tho abode of the deified saints : bonerth this are five Fimdnas or abodes of gods. Next, at the distance of one rdju from the summit, follow niné tiers of worlda represonting a necklace, Under these are twelve (the Digambaras say sixteon) other regions in eight tiers from one to five rdjus above the earth filled with Fimdnas or abodes of various classes of gods called Kalpardsis. Yhese gods are mortal except, perhaps, the Jami- naries. Tho earth consists of numerous distinct continents in concentric circles seprrated by seas forming ways betwoon them of which the first is Jambu-dueipa with tho mountain Meru in the centro. The remaining continents aro almost arepetition of these already described by Abul Fazl at page 28 of this volume and do not here need a further nutico.

196 JAINA,

thing less than seven rdjus. (3). Svarga-loka is the celestial region, and is a little less than seven rdjus high. Its inhabitants possess five organs of sense. Among them the Vaimdnikas dwell in twenty-six orders which represent paradise. They attain to these bodies and enjoy happiness through good works. Wight orders of Vaimdaikas dwell within five rdjus, and four in the sixth rdju. Fourteen orders of the inferior class occupy one rdju. A rdjuis the distance traversed by an iron ball of three and a half Akbari ser’s weight, thrown downwards and ¢ontinuing to fall for a period of six months six days and twelve gharis. It is said that for six karoh above the twenty-six orders aforesaid, there is a circular area like erystal.t Its length is 4,500,000 yojanas and its breadth the same, with a height of eight yojanas. After traversing a distance of three and five- sixth of a Karohk upwards, the sacred haven of final liberation is reached where men are absorbed in the divinity as light in light.

« The ages of the gods extend from something less than a palyopama to not more than a Sdgara.* The four classes of deities including two orders of the Vaimdnikas have a stature of seven cubits; the third and fourth are of six cubits; the fifth and sixth, of five; the seventh and cighth, of four; from the ninth to the twelfth, of three: from the thirteenth to the twenty-first of two, and from the twenty-second to the twenty- sixth of one cubit, but all of them possess the power of assuming various shapes. Allthe deities are said to have the desire of food, but it is not taken by the mouth, as they are satisfied by mere volition. Each of the deities who arrives at the age of ten thousand years, requires food every other day, and breathes once during the time in which a healthy man would breath forty-nine times. Those whose age extends beyond this term to one Sdgara, eat once between a minimum and maximum of three and nine days and breathe once between four and eighteen gharis. Those who live beyond the period of a Sara, eat once after a thousand years, and breathe once in fifteen days. Such as live to a still greater term than this, for each Sdgara, allow upwards of a thousand years to elapse before they touch food, and in the same progortion of time, in- creasing intervals of fifteen days pass before a breath is drawn. They also believe that all the deities including two orders of the fourth class, (the Vaimdnika), have sexual intercourse after the manner of man- kind, but pregnancy does not take place: the third and fourth orders by conjanction and the sense of touch: the fifth and sixth by sight, and the seventh and eighth, by hearing; four other orders, by mere effort of imagination, while fourteen orders of the second class are innocent of

1 A variant has pl Leygls, “ called bilora.” | % Var. “three Sdgaras.”

JAINA, 197

this intercourse. These are said to attain to this eminence by good works, Lxtraordinary legends are told of these beings, of which let this little from among much be a sufficiency.

The mundane (manushya), consists of (souls) of two kinds :—(1). Samjiia, possessing the power of apprehension, and (2). Asamjita, without power of apprehension. The latter appear (as animalcula) in the flesh, blood and saliva of men and do not live more than the space of two gharis. The Samjiia class is sub-divided into two, The Jainas apportion the earth into two parts, and assign one to each division. In the first, commands and prohibitions are in full force, and happiness and misery are the re- compense of good and evil actions. Fifteen considerable portions of the earth are allotted to this division.

The Jainas believe that during the six avas, the extent of which has been mentioned in a favmer section, twelve Chakravartés successively appear. Thirty-two thousand kingdoms are beneath his sway, and thifty- two thousand princes are subject to him. He possesses 8,400,000 elephants and as many horses and chariots. He has likewise fourteen thousand ministers of state, nine hundred and thirty millions of footmen, eighty thousand sages, three hundred thousand cuirassiers, five hundred thousand torch-bearers, thirty millions of musicians, sixty-four thousand wedded wives, ote hundred and twenty-cight thousand female slaves, sixteen thousand mines of gems, nineteen thousand mines of gold and twenty-eight thousand of other minerals, sixteen thousand provinces of barbarians (mlechchhas), that is, of races foreign to his institutions, thirty-two thousand capital cities, sixteen thousand royal residencies, three hundred and sixty millions of cooks for the royal table,! and three hundred and sixty for his private service.4 Many other endowments are attributed to him. The first cyvle of these began with Raja Bharata (Chakravarti), son of Adindtha. Some of these on account of their good works, are translated to heaven while others go down tohell, They assert that nine other individuals are born, entitled Vasudevas, which is a rank possessing half the powers of a Chakravarti, and they believe that these dignitaries descend into a hell, and that Krishna is among their numbef. Nine other persons, designated Baladevas, are said to exist who possess half the powers of a Visudeva.® Over all these, the Tirthan-

1 “Jo sens un grand ombarras,” says Mr. Barthélomy Saint Hilaire, referring to similar extravagances of Buddhist betief, ‘ & exposer toutes ces absurdités, qui ont aussi pea de graco que du bon Sens, et je voudrais les épargner an lecteur, si je ne tenais a lui donner une

idée fidtle do ces monuments, vénérés par tant de peuples, quelqne dtraison- nables et monstruenx quils soient.”’ Legende du Bonddha. p. 71.

§ Tho toxt has wyi54 which I conceive

should be wd. 8 Colebrooke’s order for these person-

198 JAINA.

kara, who will be presently described, is the supreme head. Much has becn written regarding the denizens of this sphere.

There is another extensive region, where its people have garmentn of the leayes of its trees! and their food is wild fruits or the swect verdura produced by its soil. They are beautiful of countenance and pleasing in disposition. Their stature varies from one to three karoh, in height. One son or daughter is born to them after which they die. They are called Juglyah* and when they grew to adolescence, they marry, and their duration of life extends from one to three palyopama. F

lt is said that those who have not been charitable in deed, nor practised good works, pass after death among this race, and obtain the recompense thereof and bear no burden of pain.

The Ndrakis, like the devatds, can assume various shapes and many of their conditions, but their aspect is terrible and always in dAcjec- tiof and gloom. Inthe six degrees in which hellis said to be divided, they are agitated in burning torment, and though in agony are ever malc- ficent and from innate wickedness torture each other.

The class called Bhavana-pati have ingress to three degrees of this sphere and are the ministers of chastisement to these fiends. The stature of the dwellers in the first degree is from three to thirty one cubits and six fingers, and their ago between ten thousand years and one Sdgara, The stature of those in the second degree is double that of the first, and this proportion of increase runs through the remaining degrees: the dura- tion of life in the second degree is from one to three Sdgaras. The age of the denizens of the third degree extends from a minimum of three Sdgaras and attains to a maximum of seven: of the fourth, from seven to ten; of the fifth, to seventeen; of the sixth, to twenty-two; and of the seventh,® to thirty-three.

Tiryagyont signifies tho rest of the animal creation and is three-fold :—

ages, rang: 24 Jinas or Tirthankaras, the three ages, Ist wéfama-bhoga-bhiimi- 12 Chakravartis, 9 Vasudevas, 9 Bala- pravartaka or “supremely happy in- devas, and 9 Prativésudevas. Macken- habitants of the earth” svhen the mira- zie’s list appears from Colebrooke’s note, culons trees were in full produce: to be incorrect. ’ 2nd Madhyama-bhoga-Lhiimi-praw.; mo-

1 These are the kalpa-urikhas or co- derately happy inhabitants; 8rd Ja. Jeatial trees, of which Major Mackenzie ghanya-vhoga, &c., or least happy in- mentions nine varieties. Their gradual habitants, when the trees wore strait- disappearance portends the destruction ened in produce. In the fourth age of the world. + no miracnlons fruits were prodaced.

% For Prikrit, Jugala, Sanskrit, Yugala, 8 This stage is presumably above or a pair, turned into adjectival form. below the first or last zone.

Major Mackenzie names the people of

JAINA. 199

(1). aquatic: (2). terrestrial: (3). aerial. The first named order is five-fold, viz, (1). acquatic animals like the Séémdr,! which resemble men, elephants and horses &c.; (2). fishes of variouskinds: (3). the tortoise: (4). the Kardh,? an animal in the shape of a tent-rope, four yards long and more, which twines itself round the legs of elephants and other animals and prevents their getting out of the water: (5). the crocodile.

The second order is of three kinds: quadrupeds like cattle: those that creep on their bellies, as snakes: and such as can move upon two feet like the weasel.

The third order is of four kinds: two domesticated with man, viz, whose pinions are of feathers, like the pigeon, or of skin, like the bat ; and two others that fly in the blissful abodes of the gods, each of which is described with its peculiir characteristics, and many circumstances are related of them. The dungtion of life in the first class is from two gharis® to one purva which is equal to seventy krors of Iakhs and fifty-six thousand kgors of years. (70,560,600,000,000). The second and third classes in their mini- mum are like the first, but the second does not extend beyond three palyo- pama, While the third has no determinate limit. They assert that the duration of age among such as have but one sense, if formed of the subtile elements, is two gharis, and the gross body of the earth does not endure above twenty-two thousand years, nov that of water, above seven thousand ; nor of fire, above three days, nor of wind, above three thousand years. Such as have two organs of sense livo twelve years; such as possess three organs, forty-nine days, and four organs, six months. Tho animal creation pos- sessing five organs of sense together with mankind have a life of three palyopama, while the Ndrakis and devatds live thirty-three Sdgaras but not beyond this term.

In the interchange of embodiment of these four* classes, they allow twenty-four habitations to the soul which enters into air, fire, water, earth, the vegetable creation of two, three and four organs of sense, quad- rupeds born of the womb, the ten classes of the infernal regions, the Zha- vanapati, Vyantara, Jyotishka, Vaimdnika, men and devatds. After death, it centers intovone of the following five, viz., mankind, the animal creation with five organs of sense, water, earth, and vegetable forms. The souls of men may come and go through twenty-two forms and when they pass into air or fire, no more assume human shape. Hell-bodics may assume two forms, those of men or of animals with five senses born of the womb, and their lives like

1 Derived from the Sanskrit S’i¢umdra % Probably some kind of eol, but I do (child-killing), the Gangotio porpoiso : not trace the word in any dictionary. in Persian it commonly means a spocics 8 In the text read ghari for gart,

of lizard. 4 See p. 193.

200 JAINA.

those of the Juglyah’ class are not of any considerably length, nor do they everenter paradise. Those of the seventh degree of hell, do not even enter human bodies, but each of the (other) three kinds of animals having five organs of sense, have entry and exit through all the twenty-four habitations?

The arithmeticians of this sect apply the term laksha to one hundred thousand, which the vulgar pronounce lakh. Ten lakhs make a prayuta,® and ten prayutas are termed a kofi, called generally a kror. One hundred krors make an arba (Sansk-arbuda), and ten arba a kharba, and ten kharbas a nikharba,* ten nikharbas, a mahd-saroja,® called also padma. Ten padmas make a S’ankha, ten S‘ankha, a Samudra, called also Kordkor. .

They state that if of a seven day’s child of the Juglyah age, the hair, being four thousand and ninety-six times as thick as the hair of the Delhi people, be taken and cut up till further sub-division be impracti- cable, and a well, four karoh in length, breadth and depth, be filled with such particles, and a single one of the aforesaid particles be taken out of the well at the expiry of each hundred years till the well be emptied, this period would constitute a palyopama. The lapse of ten Samudra of a palyopama constitutes a Sdgara. — 7:

Having now discussed the first of the (six) objects classed under Prameya, I briefly mention the other five. The second, Akdsa, ether, is a subtile substance, eternal and all-pervading, possessing neither intelligence nor soul, The third, kdla, time, is a substance like the preceding, but not all-pervading. It cireumscribes the terrestrial abode of man. The fourth Pudgala® (matter or substance), is four-fold. Jf not divisible (atomic), nor compounded with another body, it is called pramdza, and if in conjunction,, pradesa. When, several pradesa unite, they are called dega, aud the con- junction of several deSas is termed skandha.?7 The first is accounted eter-

iV. p. 198. n. & Compounds sometimes arise from

separation and conjunction combined and hence are called pudgalas, becauso they “ fill” (pur) and “ dissolve” ( gal.) Sarva, Sangr, Darsana, p. 52. Weber translates it Atom-Stoff. “Wragment der. Bhag. p 236. Abul Fazl transliterates Puigal.

8 To make sense of this passage I have been compelled to omit the y after gly Aus earls The variant yo is not hore admissible, but it shows that the text needs emendation.

5 Spelt differontly at p. 50 of the text,

and p. 111 of this volume.

4 The text has bikharba through the correct term is rightly given at p. 51 of the text.

6 Lake-born; an epithet of the lotus which in Sanskrit is also called padma.

7 This word signifies the elements of being or the forms of mundane con- sciousness of which there are five in the Buddhist philosophy. Pradefa, one of the forms of the soul’s bondage, is the entrance into tho differen) parts of the

JAINA, 201

nal and has five qualities, colour, odour, phlegm, and two out of eight op- posite states of gravity or tenuity, rigidity or softness. heat or coldness, greediness or its contrary.! The fifth is Dharmdstikdéya, (the predicament virtue). It isa substance by the instrumentality of which, the rational soul and mind (manas), and matter (pudgala), ave capable of movement, as a fish by means of water. The sixth is Adharmdstikdya (the predica- ment vice). This is a substance, quiescent, and favourable to repose. In some works there is mention of nine first principles called tattvas, viz., (1). Jiva, soul; (2). Ajiva, the contrary to this, as ether, time, &c. ; (3). Punya; (4). Pdpa. By the conjunction of a multiplicity of matter and soul- forms, joy and sorrow, ease and pain are produced and this conjunction is termed karman (works), and is also distinguished as prakriti.* All that is productive of virtue is called punya, and pépa is vice. Karman is eight-fold: (1).—Jndnd-vvraniya ( shrouding of knowledge), forms of matter that by their conjuuction veil each of the five kinds of knowledge that shave been noticed. (2). Darsana-varaniya (shrouding of study), shrouds apprehension by the five organs of sense. (3). Vedanzya (individual consciousness), conjunction of matter by means of which the soul is af- fected by joy or sorrow. (4). Mohaniya, (producing delusion), conjunction of atoms which causes good to be mistaken for evil and the reverse. (5). Ayus (age), conjunction of atoms on which depends the continuance of animal life. (6). Ndman, (nama), conjunction of things® which is the

son] by the masses, made up of an endless nnmber of parts, of the various bodies developed by the consequences of actions. S. S. Darfana’ p. 56. I do not «find pramdna as a division of pudgala in Colebrooke nor in the 8. 8. D,

1 Pudgala possesses colour, odour, Bavour and tactility according to Cole- brooke: as wind, fire, water, earth; sither atoms or aggregates of atoms ; individual body, collective worlds, &o.

8 The former of these two last-named, is said to be inferrible from a right direction of the organs. Dharma is ex- Plained as a sabstance or thing (dravya), from which may be concladed, as its effect, the souls’s ascent to the region above. The Jatter is the reverse of the foregoing. Adharma canses the soul to continue embarrassed with the body notwithstanding its tendency to soar.

26

The word astikdya signifies a predica- ment or category, or conformably with its etymology, that of whioh it is ssid (kéyate), that “it is” (asti),

8 Lebdens-geist. Weber. Thera are three descriptions of this:—the perfect soul of the deified saints: the liberated soul: and the soul in bondage. <Ajiva comprehends the four elements and all that is fixed, as mountains, or moveable, as rivers, and is synonymous with Pudgala.

4 The synonymous terms Dharma and Adharma are used by Colebooke, and in S. S. Darfana for punya and pdpa. The latter work mentions the eight: prakritis or mula-prakritis called the eight Karmans in Govindanandas’ gloss, (Ved, Sut.), p. 55.

6 I read the variant esits >, The term Ndmika is applied to the individual

202 JAINA

creative complement of genus, species and individual existence. (7). otra (race), the conjunction of atoms by which the soul assumes the forms of eminent and ignoble persons. (8). Antardya (interference), conjunction of atoms by whigh men abstain from works, are unable to take nourishment, have no inclination for sexual intercourse, take no profitin trade nor practise liberality or mortification.

V. Asrava’ (flow, movement), ovil actions of five kinds, viz bodily injury, falsehood, theft, incontinence, unbridied desire.

VI. Samvara (stopping), is abstention from the above five actions,

VII. Bandha (bondage), is the union of matter with soul.

VIII. Nirjaré is the gradual disruption of conjoined atoms by the mortification of the body #

.

consciousness of an appellation, tiz., I capable of attaining deliverance.” An- bear his name. Gotrika is consciousness tardya is interference, or obstraction of race or lineage, the refiection that offered to those engaged in seeking doli- I am a descendant of a certain disciple of .{ verance and consequent prevention of its Jaina, native of a certain province. The accomplishment. Colebrooke.

Baddhists similarly degrade the spiri- 1 This means the movement or natural tuality of man’s nature by the assertion impulse of the soul to act, called Yoga. that it is by his name that he is con- As a door opening into the water is scious of his personality. Ina Pali Sdtra, called A’srava, because it causes the pecially devoted to the exposition of stream to descend, so by this impulse, the theory of causes, (Mahénidina the consequences of acts flow in upon Sontta), the passage is quoted by M. the soul. It is the association of the Sainte Hilaire from Burnonf’s Lotus de body with right or wrong deeds and la bonne foi. ‘ C’est le nom qui fait que comprises all the karmans. AN these Yindividu se connait lni-méme.” Ayush- eight classes of acts are mentioned in ka ia association with the body or person 5 the Bhagavati. v. Weber’s Fragment that, as the etymology denotes, which der Bhagavati, p. 166, 11.

proclaims (kdyate) age, (wyus), or dura- 8 Nirjurd is that which entirely (nir), tion of life. Jind varantya is the wears and antiqnates (jarayati), all sin erroneous notion that knowledge is in- previously incurredand the whole effect effectual, that liberation does not result of works It consista chiefly in mortifi- from a perfect acquaintance with true cation. Bondage is that“which binds the principles, and that such science does embodied spirit by-association of the soul not produce final deliverance. Daréana- with deeds. Moksha is its deliverance varantya (Abal Fazl hag Daréd.varantya) from the fetters of works, v. Colebrookel, is the error of believing that deliverance p. 407. The Sarva Sang-Dar§. enamerates ig not attainable by study of the Arhat the tattvas according to different autho- doctrines. Afohantya, is doubt or hesita- rities as two, five or seven. The seven are tion, as to particular selection among jtva, ajtva dsrava, bandha, samvard, nir- the infallible ways taught by Jinas or jaré and moksha: the five, jtva, dkdsa, Tirthankaras. Vedanfya is individual dharma, adharma and pudgala: two, jtve

consciousness, the reflection that “I am and ajéva: Wilson mentions nine.

JAINA. 203

TX. Moksha, called also mukét, is the total disseverance of atoms, which cannot be attained without knowledge and works. As when a firo takes place in the dwelling df a lame and a blind man, neither of them alone can escape, but the blind man may take the lame on his back, and by the vision of the one and the movement of the other they both may reach a place of safety. :

It is said that without the concurrence of three conditions, this great end cannot be secured: (1). knowledge of the Supreme Being: (2). the acquisition of a guide who makes no distinction between praise and blame, wounding and healing : (3). constancy in good works. These three take vise in obedience and service, ‘by which knowledge is gained. This latter is the chief source of a passionless state (virdga) which anuihilates the impulse (dsvara) of the embodied spirit, whence proceeds the closing (samvara) of the passage to such impulses, and this again incites men to aus- terity whereby they are occupied iu the mortification of the spirit and’ the . body. This mortification is of twelve kinds :—(1). not to eat at particular times. Formerly abstinence from solid food for a whole year was practised, and by some for nine months, but in these days six months is the longest duration : (2). to eat sparingly, and to beg for food from not more than five houses, and to fast till the next day if none be forthcoming, and to abstain from five things: vzz., milk, curds, butter, oil of sesame and sweets!: (3). mortifization of the body in enduring the sun’s heat: (4). to take rest qn hot sand, (5). to endure nakedness in cold: (6). to draw up the arms and legs and sit on the haunches. They say that it requires a long time before these six practices can be successfully accomplished, and many fail in their performance.

Regarding the expiation of sins, strange penances ave prescribed for each transgression, such as, obedience to the religious director ; service of ascetics ; reading of voluminous books; bowing the head in meditation. This

¢latter must not be for less than two gharts, and some among former devo- tees continued it for twelve years: to stand with the arms hanging down. and to refrain from movement. These six exercises quickly lead to per- fection.

There are forty-five great texts among this sect, of which twelve are termed Angas, considered to be sacred books. (1). Achdrdnga, rule of conduct for ascetics. (2). SétrakritdngaS containing three hundred and sixty

1 These are mentioned passim in the H. H. Wilson’s text (Essays J, 284).

Akéranga Stra as delicacios to be Vhe Sthdndngam, is on the organs in avoided. Jacobi. which life abides, or the ten acts essen-

31 correct the transliterations from tia] to purity. The Samavdydngam, ov

204 SAUNA.

precepts of devotees and demonstrations of each. (3). Sthdndnga, in which from one to ten (acts) essential to purity are enumerated, beginning with one, applicable to the upper and Jower worlds, and so throughout the

series to ten. (4). Samavadydnga; herein from ten to ten niillions are

enumerated and divers other truths.

(5). Bhagavatydnga ; this contains

thirty-six thousand questions put by Gautama to Mahadeva! and the

answers thereto.

(6). Jadtédharmakathéa, containing thirty-five million

ancient legends. (7). Updsakadasd, an account of ten devotees of Maha- deva.! (8). Antakriddasé, on those- who have. attained the eternal beatitade of liberation. (9). Anuttaropapdti-kadasdnga,? on the blessed

the hundred Padérthas or categories. The Bhagavatyangam, on the ritual or rules for worship. The Jndtéddharma- kathd, an account of the acquisition of knowledge by holy personages. The Updsakadaéd, rules for the conduct of Srévakas or secular Jains, apparently in ten lectures. The Antakriddagd, on the actions of the Tirthankaras in ten lectores. The ninth is on the principal or final births of the Tirthankaras in ten lectures. The tenth is a grammar of questions, probably on the code of the Jains. The eleventh on the fruits er consequences of actions. To thia list which is taken from Hemachandra of the Svetambara sect, who was a zealous propngator of the Jain doctrines in the twelfth centary, a supplemen- tary twelfth Anga, called Drishtivdda js added, divided into five portions. Besides these which profess to be derived from the oral instructions of Mahdvira himself to bis disciples and especially to Gautama, there isa class of works fourteen in namber, onumerated by Hemuchandra, called Pirvas because they were drawn up by the Ganadharas before the Angas. Abul Fazl has taken this aggregate of fourteen works, as the entire twelfth Anga to which he pre- fixes Péirva with the Hindi numeral chaudah. The Purvas, treat of the doctrine of existence, and non-existence,

of holy knowledge, discussion of trath, investigation of spirit, nature of: cor- poreal life and the like. ,

The tradition of the Svetambaras runs that the fourteen Pitrvas had been incorporated in the twelfth Anga, the Drishtivéddu, which was lost before 1000. A. V. A detailed table of contents of it and the Pérvas has survived in the fonrth Anga, the Samavdydnga and in the Nandi Sdtra. Jacobi: Jaina Stiras p. XLV). Irefer the render to Weber’s Sacred Lit. of the Jains published in the Indian Antiquary for an exhaustive criticism on the Angas and Pérvas, their tenor and antiquity. The existing Siddhaénta belongs exclusively to the Svetémbaras, and the loss of the Drish- tivdda, he conjectures, is due to the influence of their orthodoxy, as it had direct reference to the doctrines of the schismatics. It had been added to the’ other eleven as & secondary addition and its incongruity with the rest led to its suppression. Uncertainty and want of fixity attach to the entire Jain writings; the oldest portions of their literature are bnt disjecta membra, and as regards the date of their composition, separated from each other by extensive periods. I. A. Part CCXIII, p. 285.

1 An error for Mahdvira,

3 In the text Anuttaro-vaydnga,

JAINA. 205

who for their good works have passed into the twenty-sixth degree of paradise. (10). Prasnavydkaraninga, mentions various works, the source of good and evil acts. (11). VipdkaSrutdnga, former consequences of actions, which having borne the recompense of good and evil are forever laid to rest. (12). Chaudah-piirvdnga (anga of fourteen Pérvas), contain- ing questions that concern mankind generally, with various reflections and classes of acts.

\The twenty-four Tirthankaras having in these deliverances revealed the will of the Supreme Being, their successors collected them and reduced them to writing. Twelve of them are termed Updngas, in which the purport of the former books has been concisely recorded with some addi- tional matter. Four books are called Miila-Stitras, in which are given the usages of religious preceptors, the mode of begging, manner of life, ‘fnortification, worship of God and rules of composition. Six works are termed -Chedda-grantha, on expiation of sin. Ten others are called Pdinna,! explanation of the ‘anatomy of the limbs, the manner of birth in animals, and all that takes place at the dissolution of elemental connection, and other subjects. Another work designated Nandi-Sutra, treats of the five kinds of knowledge, which have been already mentioned.

‘The devotees of this sect are called Yatis.%. Sishya (disciple), is an inquirer who enters on this path. Ganesa-sishya} is an ascetic who for six

1 The Sanskrit for this Prékrit word is Prakirna, and signifies a collection of Miscellaneous rules. —

Weber in his Sacred literatare of the Jains says that the third group of texte of the Siddhénta is formed by the ten pdinnas, a name which denoting ‘scat- tered, hastily sketched ” pieces, well snits their real nature aa a group of texts cor- responding to the Vedio partéishtas. It is as yet undetermined how old is their position-as the third part of the S8iddhénta and what caused their location there. They are with few exceptions in metre anda considerable portion of them refers to the proper sort of eutha- nasy, the confession required for this end and the abjuration of everything evil. Physiology, mythology and astro- logy and hymns are also treated. (I. A. Part COLIX. April 1892,) Weber is unable to make ont the significance of

the title Aftila-Sutra, of which there are four. The text is composed in metre and principally Slokas. The entire Sid- dhdnta according to Weber, at present embraces 45 texts divided into six gtoups. (1). eleven or twelve Angas. (2). twelve Upfingas. (3), ten Painnas. (4). six Cheddasitras, (5). two Sitras yithont a common name, Nandi and Anuydgadvdéram. (6). four Mile-Sutras.

The namea of all these will be found in I, A. Part CCXIU, October, 1888,

8 Theterm S’ramana (in Prakrit and Hindi, written Semana) is also applied by the Jainas to the Yati with the same meaning, and is similarly employed by the Buddhists: and Wilson (I. 475) supposes that the Sommonacodom of Siam is merely a corraption of the words S’ramana Gautama, the holy Gantama or Buddha.

8 From Guna-iéa lord of troops; Gara

206 JAINA, .

months ata stretch restrains the inordinate spirit within the prison of freedom from desire. If he eats one day, he fasts two, and defiles not his hand with milk, curds, butter, oil nor sweets. He eats only of a little parched wheat thrown into hot water, and begs for alms only from one house; his nights are spent till morn in prayer, and five hundred times during each night he prostrates himself in worship, and in the day reads - the book of Bhagavati.!

The Pravartaka (founder), has much the same character, but on account of his zeal and experience is nominated by the chief religious autho- rity of the time over the pilgrims in this desolate wilderness, to super- intend their, daily actions and appoint suitable penance for such as are indolent and inclined to ease. The Sthdvira (elder), is an assistant to the preceding who controls the refractory and aids the languishing. The Ratnddhika, or Pantydsa as he is also called, is zealous in the service of God wherever duty calls and thither speeds to remedy disorder: the also prepares the place for the Achérya or spiritual teacher, and has the care of his garments and the settlement of disputes among the ascetics is com- mitted to him. The Upddhydya (sub-teacher), has nearly the same rank as an Achdrya, and the disciples verify under his direction the words of the sacred texts and the questions thereto appertaining. These teachers possess nothing of their own but the garments which will be particularised later. The Achirya is a personage of a genial disposition, reverent of aspect,pleasant of speech, grave, learned and benevolent. He must be acquaiuted with the proofs of the doctrines of his sect, and learned in the precepts of the

with the Jains signifies a school ora blessed’ (i. ¢.,) “ instruction ” or ebayyéa-

school derived from one teacher, and Ganadhara, the head thereof. Abul Fazl employs ‘either the Hindi or Pra. krit forms for these words. Sishya ig Stkh, commonly applied to the followers of Nanak.

1 This work is mentioned by Wilson (I. 281. Essays 1862, Rost) as one of the eleven primary works of the Jainas, au inetractiou in the various sources of wordly pain, or iu the paths of virtue, aud consists of lessons given to Gantama “by Mabdvira and is in Prakrit, in 36,000 stanzas. The Bhagavati is named by Hemachandra in his enumeration of the sacred Angas or Jaina scriptures, in the fifth place. Its title signifies ‘the

tov, an honorific title for vydkhydpraj- napati (instruction in doctrine) probably the most anthentic work extant on the life and teaching of Mahavira (Weber, Fragment der Bhagavati. Pagel). It consists of a series of questions by Imdabhati, Roha, and yther disciples of Mahavira to that sage, and his answers, relating to a variety of topics, sach as time and matter and their duration, the nature of hell-bodies, their punishments, states and continuance ; whether exis- tence or non-existence be prior in time, the condition and duration of embryonic life, questions of casuistry, moral duties, fruits of works, legends, deities and the ages of worlds.

JAINA. 207. other eight schools and skilled to refute them, and no treatise should be unknown to him. Tho burden of the care of his flock lies upon his shoulders, and to promote the welfare of his institute must be his chief aim. Garments and books that are in excess of ordinary requirements are in his keoping for supply at need to inquirers of this road. The Ganadhara by fullness of knowledge and good works arrives at an exalted degree gf wisdom, and possesses the eight miraculous endowments mentioned in the Pitafijala system. He is the representative of the Jina. The Jina who is also called Tirthankara (creating a passage through the circuit of life), surpasses this dignity und attains omniscience, is beautiful of countenance, and perfect in the moral order. His breath is redolent with fragrance and bis words full of wisdom. His flesh and blood are white, and none has ever seen him eat or defecate. Neither sickness nor sweat nor dirt contaminate his holy person. His nailsand hair grow not long. His words foll so harmoniously that every listener might deem that ‘his speech was music. In whatsoever land he resides, snakes, scorpions and other venomous reptiles disappear, neither excess nor deficiency in rainfall occurs, and war, pestilence and drought cease. When he moves abroad, the trees are voiceful in praise, and many ministering spirits - attend to guard him. It is said that his beatified soul is imprisoned in the ventricular cavity of his form bya special connection, and in contradistinction to men in general, he is illumined by three kinds of apprehension, obtains cognition through the organs of sense and mind (manas) and the purport of all books is laid open to him. He discerns all that has form whether far or near, and after being born, and through the discipline of austerities, he becomes cognisant of the secret thoughts of men and arrives at the sublime degree of omuiscience. These quilities belong to the whole twenty-four Tzrthankaras of whom mention has beon made.

The ascetics of this body have no intercourse with women, aud avoid the spot where the sound of her voice is heard. They abstain from meat, fenit and sweemeats. They cook no food in their own dwellings, and at the meal-time of others, they approach a house and there stand and snnounce themselves by the words, “dharma lébha” that is, ‘he who doeth good, receiveth a reward,” and without importunity, take whatever of daily. cooked food is brought. They may not take away! milk, oil and rice together for food, and without being covetous of the taste thereof must speedily swallow their meal. And they must not knowingly accept, food cooked especially for them or for the sake of mendicants in general, ~ nor which has been brought from out of a dark room, nor fetched by mounting

1 J read 03,9) instead of either o}jsior oJ,

208 “JAINA.

from a low to an elevated place, nor for which the lock of a door has been opened nor brought out having been previously purchased.! They drink nothing but warm water and do not-eat or drink’ during the night. They never light a lamp nor have a fire in the house in which they dwell. They may not pick up avy thing fallen nor wash any member of the body but that which is actually soiled, They must avoid avarice and anger, and abstain from falsehood, from injury to life and from theft, and may have no worldly goods, but only necessary raiment. This, in other than winter time, consists of three robes. One of these is used.as a loin cloth, a second thrown over the shoulder like a belt and the third worn over the uncovered head.3 In winter @ special woollen garment is added. They have alsoa cloth a little more than a span and a half in length and breadth which they keep folded in four. This is placed over the mouth when reading and the two ends are stuffed into the ears sothat no insecb may enter and be injured, nor the person nor the book be defiled by saliva. They also carry a Dharmadhvaja* made of woollen hairs like a tassel, bound with scarlet cloth and fixed in a wooden handle. As they constantly sit on the ground, they first gently sweep it with both hands that nothing may remain beneath. The elders of this sect, who have been briefly mentioned, spread an old woollen cloth by way of carpet, and spend their days profitably in fasting aud good works. Every six months they pull ont the hairs of their head with their hands and nails, and go barefoot among thorns and stony places, but in the rainy season they do not stir abroad.$

11 translate with diffidence this crabbed and ungrammatical sentence. The Akéranga Sitra lays down rules for these cases. The reason for the prohibition regarding food set on 8 loft, or platform or elevated place, is that the laymav might fetch and erect a stool or ladder and fall from it and thus

$ The text has dsdyy to dress, an error of the diacritical points for wosby)

8 Two of the three robes are linen un- der garments, Kshawmikakalpa, and ono woollen opper garment (aurnikakalpa). Besides these (kalpatrya), the monk possesses an almg-bow! (pééra), with six things belonging to it, a broom (rajo-

hurt his person or injure other living beings in hie descent. Neither should a monk or aun occept food prepared over the fire, (Jacobi, p. 105, 113) nor accept food which for the sake of another has been put before the door, if the house-holder _ has not permitted him to do go or if he gives it to him. (p. 118), nor which he knows has been prepared for the sake of many Sramanas, and Bréhmanas, guests, paupers and beggars. (91).

harana), and a veil for the mouth (mukhavestrika ), Jacobi, p. 67, n. 3.

4 “The emblem or ensign of religion.” This term is commonly applied in Sana- krit to a hypocrite, as one who bangs out a flag of yeligion to cover other de- signs. Their broom is called ‘ rajoha- rana, dust remover,

6 The reason of this is, that many

living beings are prodaced and many

JAINA, 209

The laity of this sect are called Srdvaka. They observe, firstly, the following twelve rules. I. Never to injure the innocent. II. To avoid (the following) five kinds of untruths which are accounted great falsehoods ; (1) false testimony, (2) breach of trust, (3) regarding land, (4) in praise and and blame of others, (5).concerning a cow. III. Not to stain their hands with dishonesty. IV. Not to look upon the wife of another. V. To be content with a moderate share of worldly goods. VI. To give the sur- plus in charity. VII. On journeys, to move stated distances, VII. To: dgtermine the daily need of food and other necessaries, and to live accord- ingly. IX. Not to approach a spot where a sati has taken place ora robber executed. X. To set apart two or three gharis of the twenty-four hours, and with complete detachment of heart to employ these in devo- tion to the bountiful Creator. XI. At the hour of sleep to resolve on absten- tion from further food, and effacing the suggestions of desire, to lay down to rest, XII. On the 8th, 14th, 15th, and 1st day of the 1st quarter of the moon, to abstain from food and drink throughout the day, and to feed the first beggar (met with) on the morn of the break of fast. The points aforesaid should be gone over every day and at the time of rest, and the conscience be therein examined.

The claim of rectitude of life in this austere sect is applicable to a man who fulfils the following conditions :—He should constantly listen to the reading of the sacred texts, perform works of charity, make a practice of praising the virtuous, defile not his tongue in disparagement of another, especially of temporal rulers. Ho should take in wedlock one who is his equal, and be ever in fear of committing sin. He should conform to the laws of the land whorever he abides, and should so choose his dwelling that it be not public to every passer-by, nor yet so secluded that none can dis- Cover it, and it should not have more than two or three doors. He should choose good neighbours and associate only with the virtuous. He should be dutiful to his father and mother, and avoid acity or a province invaded by foreign troops. He must regulate his expenses in accordance with his income, and make his dress conform to the same standard. He must be assiduous in reading the divine books, and avoid an unrestrained spirit in the regulation of his life.!’ He must take his meals at stated times, and observe due measure in his regard for worldly wealth, and the get- ting thereof and attachment thereunto, and should be zealous in hospitality to a guest, an ascetic, and in the care of the sick. He should not be self-

seeds spring up, the footpaths are not passage, one being exactly the reverse recognisable. (Jacobi) p. 136. of the prohibitory injanction in the text. 1 There are various readings to this

27

210 JAINA.

,

opiniated, nor a lover of his“own speech. He must prizo learning. He must not journey out of season, nor into a country where he cannot practise his religion, nor enter into a quarrel without discerning his ally from his enemy. He must sympathize with his kindred, and be provident and far-sighted, and recognize the claims of gratitude, and so bear himself in his outward conduct that men may hold him in regard. He must be modest, gentle and courteous in demeanour, and exert himself in the interests of others, and subduing his internal enemies, hold his five senses under the control of reason. ;

The prohibitions to be observed by “both the ascetics and the laity ave, to abstain from flesh-meat, wine, honey, butter, opium, snow, ice, hail, everything that grows beneath the earth, fruits whose names are unknown, or that contain small seeds, and from eating at night.

The Jaina institutes recognize two orders, the Svetambaras (clad in white), and Digambaras (sky-clad). The latter wear no clothes and go naked. According to the Digambaras, a woman cannot attain final liberation.!. They say that when any one arrives at the sublime degree of mukti, he needs no food till he dies. They are at one with the Svetambaras on many points. The writer has met with no one who had personal knowledge of both orders and his account of the Digambaras has been written as it were in the dark, but having some acquaintance with the learned of the Svetambara order, who are also known as Sewra* he _ has been able to supply a tolerably full notice. From ancient times, throughout the extent of Hindustan, the Bréhmans and Jains have been the repositories of knowledge and ecremonial observance, but from short- sightedness have held each other in reproach. The Bréhmans worship Krishna as a deity, while the Jainas relegate him to service in hell. The Brahmans deem ‘it better to face a raging elephant or a raveniug sion than to meet with one of this sect. His Majesty, however, in his earnest search after truth, has partially dispelled the darkness of the age by the light of universal toleration, and the numerous sectaries, relinquishing their mutual aversion, live in the happy accomplishment of a common harmony,

1 There is a division between the among the Jainas, as among the Brahma- Digambaras and Svyetambaras on this nical Hindus, is divided into four orders ; point, the lattor conceding the doubtful the student (Brahmacharya), the house- privilege of final annihilation to women holder (grihastha), the hermit (rdna- also. The other points of difference praxha) and the mendicant (dhikshuka). may be read in Wilson’s Essays I. p. 2 tiga & religious mendicant of the 840. ‘I’bey are not of sufficient import- Jaina sect according to the Dictionaries, ance to record in a note, bat not too but Colebrooke (II, 175) applies it to the trivial to create the bitterest rancour Jaing in general.

between the orders. The priestly caste

BAUDDHA. 211

Bauddha.

The founder of this rational system of faith is known as Buddha, and is called by many names.’! One of these is Sékyamuni, vulgarly pro- nounced Shdkmini. It is their belief that by the efficacy of a life of charity, he attained to the highest summit of wisdom, and becoming om- niscient, secured the treasure of final liberation His father was Rdja Sudhodana, prince of Behar, and his mother’s name was Aféyé. He was born by way of the navel* and was surrounded by a brilliant light, and the earth trembled, and a stream of the water of the Ganges showered down upon him. At the same time he took seven steps, uttered some sublime words, and said, “This will be my last birth.” The astrologers foretold that on his attaining the age of twenty-nine years and seven days, he would become a mighty ruler, institute a new religion, and accomplish his final liberation. At the veyy time foretold, be renounced the world and retired into the desert. Fora short period he lived at Benares, Rajgir,’

and other sacred places, and after many wanderings reached Kashmir.

} Among these are, Bodhi-sattva (essence of intelligence) Sramana Gau- tama, Mahi Sramana (the great ascetic), Tathagata (one who hath gone, i. e., proceeded like his predecessors, the Buddhas), Sngata (the Welcome) Bha- gavat (the divine), Arhat, Sarvartha- Siddha (all falfilled) Devatideva (god of gods) and others. E. Rockhill. (Life of Buddha) and Saiut-Hilaire (Le Bouddha et sa religion). Abn) Faz} gives the name of the father as Siddho- dan, Bishop Bigandet, Thoodaudana, doubtless the Burmese prononciation of the palatal sibilant,

% According to Foucaux (Histoire du Bouddha Sakya Mouni), from the right- side of his mJther ‘sans que le cdté droit de sa méro fat brisé, de méme qu’ autrefois quand ily etait entré (p. 97.) A pinate taken from o bas-relief of the Calcutta Museum is given by Foncaux in the appendix to his volame, showing the birth of Buddha in the fashion des- cribed. The carthquakes take place when a Buddha centers and leaves the womb of his mother, and when he passes

into Nirvana, (59). The light filled the world at the time of his leaving the Tus- hita, or fourth heaven, accompanied by hundreds of millions of deities, to enter the womb of his mother, and again broke forth eclipsing the sun and moon, and the splendours of Brahméand Indra at his birth. His steps were made in tho direction of the cardinal points, and ac- cording to the Tibetan account of Rock- hill, looking to the East he said,“ I will reach the highest Nirvana :’ to the South, ‘I will be the first of all creatures :’ to the West, “this will be my last birth :’” to the North, “I will cross the ocean of existence :” buat the directions, the sentences, the manner of tho steps, dif- fer in Rockhill, Bigandet, Hardy, and Foucaux. I may conclude with Saint- Hilaire; “je ne citerais point ses folies si elles ne servaiont @ abord & faire connaitre la tournure d’esprit des Bouddhistes, et ensuite montrer a’quelic hauteur ils placent leur Boud- dha au dessus de tous les dienx du Panthéon brahmanique.”

8 The ancient Rijigriha of which the

212 : BAUDDHA.

Many of Hindu race, and ion the coasts, and from Kashmir, Tibet and Scythia were ‘converted’ by him. From the date of his death to the present time, which is the fortieth year of the Divine Era, Lo thonsand nine hundred and sixty-two years have elapsed.!. He possessed the gift of an efficacious will and the power of performing miracles. He lived one hun- dred and twenty years. The learned among the Persians and Arabs, name the religious of this order Bhikshus ;* in Tibet they are styled Lémas. For * a long time past scarce any trace of them has existed in Hindustan, but they are found in Pegu, Tenasserim and Tibet. The third time that the writer accompanied His Majesty to the delightful valley of Kashmir, he met with a few old men of this persuasion, but saw none among the learned, nor observed anything like what is described by Hafiz Abru and Banakati. The Bréhmans regard him as the ninth avatdéra, but do not accept the doc-

trine commonly ascribed to him, and deny that he is their author.

ruins may still be seen in the Patna dis- trict, identified by Genl. Cunningham as the residence of Baddha and the capital of the ancient Magadha, called also, by him Kuéégéra-pira (town of the Kiisa-grass) ; Kusinéré and Kasinagara in Rockhill. It was visited and described *py the Chinese pilgrims Hionen Theang and Fa-Hian. It is girdled by its five hills, one of which Baibhar, is the Web- hdro Mountain of the Pali annals, con- taining the Sattapanni cave, in front of which the first Buddhist Synod was held in 543, B.C. Another cave isin the Rat- nagiri hills, which in the Lalita Vistara, is said to have been the scene of Buddha’s meditations: V. Ano. Geog. of India.

1 The 40th year of the Iléhi era, cor. responding with A. D., 1596, would make the date of the Buddha’s death B.C., 866. The supposed date of this occurrence differs widely, as Mr. Cowell observes (Colebrooke. Essays I. 414, n.) inthe various, Buddhist conntries, the most probable being B. 0. 543 or 477, Foucanx gives fourteen dates found in the Tibetan works, viz., B. C. 2422, 2148, 2185, 2139, 1310, 752, 653, 546, 880, 887, 576, 884, 1060, 882 (from

Csoma, Tibetan Grammar, p. 199-201.) Trans. Lalita-vistara, Introd, xi.

3 In the Tibetan version of the Mahé- parinirvana Sdtra, “The Book of the Great Decease,” are related the events of the last year, the seventy-ninth of the Baddha’s life ; v. Rockhill, p. 122.

8 In the text Bakhshi. This word oc- curs in Marco Polo (Yule I. 293) as Bavs3 and in a note (p. 305) it is explained to be a corruption of Bhikshu, the proper Sanskrit term for a religious mendicant and in particular for Baddhist devotees. The word was probably applied, adds the Noto, toa class only of the Lamas but among the Turks and Persians became a generic name for them all, and this passage from the Ain is quoted ia sup- port. It continues, that according to Pallas the word among the modern Mongols is used in the sense of teacher, and is applied to the oldest and most learned priest of a commanity, who is the local ecclesiastical chief. Among the Kirghiz Kazziks the word survives in Marco Polo’s sense of a “medi- Cine-man” or conjurer. In Western Tarkistin it has come to mean a Bard. From its association with persons who could read and writc, it seems to have

BAUDDHA,

213

They hold the Deity to be undefiled by incarnation, and with the Sdn- khya, Mimdémsé, and Jaina systems, do not consider him the author of crea-

tion.

The world, they deem to be without beginning or end, and the whole

universe to be at one moment resolved into nothingness, and at another

created again as before,!

They accept the doctrine of the recompense of

good and evil deeds, and of hell and heaven, and knowledge, according to them, is a quality of the rational soul. The ascetics of this religion shave their heads, and wear garments of leather and red cloth.

They are frequent.in their ablutions, and refuse nothing that is given them as food, and hold all that dies of itself as killed by the act of God, and therefore lawful. They hold no commerce with women, and kill

gradually passed into the sense of a clerk. was applied to an officer who perforysed duties analogous to those of Quarter- Master General and thence came to mean o paymaster.

1 There are four well-known sects which have arisen among the Banddhas. The Mfddhyamikas or Nihilists maintain, on a literal interpretation of Buddha’s sttras, that all is void. The Yogdchd- ras or Subjective Idealists, acknow- ledge all else bat internal sensation or intelligenee to be void. The Sautrdn- tikas, or Representationists, allow no external objects apprehensible by per- ception, The Vaibhdshikas, acknow- ledge the direct perception of exterior objects. Both these latter think that objects cease to exist when no longer perceived ; they have a brief duration like a flash of lightning, lasting no longer than the perception of them. Their identity is momentary; the atoms or Component parts are scattered, and the Soncourse or aggregation was momen- tary. The Sarva Sangraha DarSana, dis- cusses the snbtile position at some length. The momentariness of fleeting things, the colour blue, &c., is to be in- ferred from their existence; thus what- ever is, is momentary like a bank of clouds, and all these things are. An

Under the Mahomedan rule, it.

existence of practical efficiency is es- tablished by perception to belong to the blue and other momentary things, and the exclusion of existence from that which is not momentary is established, provided we exclade from it non-mo- mentary succession and simultaneity, as exclasion of the continent is exclusion of the contained. Practical efficiency is contained under succession and simul- taneity. It cannot reside under the permanent because during its exertion of present practical efficiency it has no such power over the past or futare. Hence succession and simultaneity being excluded from the non-fluxional, and the latter being withont practical effi- ciency, the existence of the alternative of momentariness is established. Pro- fessor Gough in a note, illustrates this view by a quotation from Ferrier’s Lectures and Remains, in which he con- siders the heavens glowing with a thou- sand hues continually changing, so that no abiding colour can be seen, even for the shortest time. In the millionth part of a second, the whole glory of the painted scene undergoes an incalculable series of mutations; it is a series of fleeting colours, no one of which is, be- cause each of them is continually melt- ing into and vanishing in another.

a

214 BAUDDHA.

nothing that has life, and looking on plants as possessing it, they refrain from digging them up or cutiing them. ;

Their spiritual energies are directed to six objects: the repression of anger, the pursuit of wisdom, soliciting alms,! true understanding of the worship of the Supreme Being, fortitude in austerities, perpetual commune with God. ‘three things are affirmed by them to be the source of good- ness: knowledge, disinterestedness, freedom from envy; and twelve seats the source of good and evil, viz., the five senses, their faculties,® the common sensory, and intellect. These twelve, they term Ayatana (seats).

There are four objects of thought which in place of paddrtha (cate- gories), they call (chaturvidha) Arya-satya, four sublime truths, The first is Duhka-satya reality of misery, which is of five kinds. (1). Vuadna, (sensation). (2). Vedand, consciousness, the recompense of good or evil. | (3), Sanjid, name or denomination of things. (4). Sanskdra, (impression), aggregate of merit and demerit. Some assert that since all things are in a state of momentary flux and reflux of existence, the intellectual conscious- ness thereof is designated by this term. (5). Rupa (form), comprehends the five elements, and their evolutes, and because al] these five produce

bodily sufferance, they are distinguished under this head.®

1 This reading is in the notes to the text, which selects a variant having a di- rectly opposite meaning, but this would be in contradiction to the common prac- tice of the Bhikskus, and of Buddha himself, v. Rockville pp 56-57.

38 So in the Sarva Sangraha Darfena, “After acquiring wealth in abundance, the twelve inner-seats are to be tho- roughly reverenced: what use of rever- encing aught else below” The five organs of knowledge, the five organs of action, the common sensory, and the in- tellect have been described by the wise asthe twelve inner seats.” For Bybg2d in the text, read the variant 8y42, The words of the S. 8. D. are siafgarfa wea ae aatanfa a | ait afafcia Haierenraad gure 0

8 These five are termed Skandhas {in

Pali. Khandhas) that is the elements and attribates of being. They embrace all the essential properties of every sentient being, possessed in a greater or less degree, according to the being. When ® man dies, his Khandhas perish, bat by the force of his merits (Kamma) a new set starts into existence, and a new be- ing appears in another world, whe though possessing different Khandhas, and a different form, is in reality identi- cal with the deceased, because his Kamma is the same. v. Colebrooke, I. 418, n. from Childers. Prof. Cowell observes that thus according to the atrictor schools of Baddhist philosophy, as repre- sented in Ceylon, soul does not oxist apart from the five Skandhas, and ia simply their aggregation, and consequent ly, any real transmigration cannot pro- perly be affirmed of Buddhism.

BAUDDHA. 215

The second, Sumudaya-Satya (progressive accumulation of evil), is all that arises from desire and anger, and which under its influence says, ‘I an,’ or, ‘ that is mine.’

The third is Mdrga-satya (reality of means), the habit of thought that the world is in momentary annihilation and reproduction. The fourth is Nirodha-satya (reality of annihilation) which they call Mukti or final liberation, Ten conditions are necessary to attain this degree: (I). Charity. (II). Abstention from evil and practising virtue, that is, to refrain from the following ten actions, viz., taking life, molesting, taking that which is not given, incontinence, falsehood, speaking ill of the good, irascibility, idle

‘speech, evil intention, intercourse prohibited by religious precept. Seven duties are to be fulfilled. Respect for the religious guide and spiritual director ; veneration of idols; observing the service of others ;! praise of the good; influencing to good works by gentle speech; perseverance through success or failure in @istaining others in virtue: learning the duties of worship. (III). To be neither elated nor depressed by praise or blame. (IV). To sit in a particular posture. (V). To introduce an idol into & temple which they call chaitya. (VI). To regard the things of the world as they really are. (VII). To be zealous in the seven practices of Yoga prescribed in the Patafijala system. (VIII). To acquire the habit of five duties: viz.,a true and firm acceptance of the commands of the religious director ; to be mindful of them and to carry them out: to reduce the body * and spirit by rigid austerities; to efface from the heart all external im- pression; to keep the mind fixed only on the Supreme Being. (TX). To strengthen the bonds of knowledge so that they cannot be broken. (X). To enter upon the knowledge by which final liberation is accomplished. Pra- mdua, proof, with this sect, consists of pratyaksha (perception), and dtman® (self), and there are two causes of knowledge, evidence of the senses, and demonstration. The first is four-fold, v¢z., apprehension by the five senses, or perception by the common sensory or apprehension of the knowledge of the things themselves, or when by reason of the mortification® of the senses, the non-apparrent and the visible become identical.

In regard to inference and the exposition of the external percipibile 4 their argumentation is lengthy and extremely subtile.

1 A variant has—‘ Seeking to do the and subsists as self. In that view only pleasure of others, is dtman, self or soul. Colebrooke I, 47. & The Bauddhas do not recognize soul 8 The full stop after eZ, in the {Jtva or dtman) distinct from intelli- text, is an error and should be removed. Bence (chitta). This latter dwelling 4 An external percipibile ia not admis- within the body and possessing indivi- sible-in congequence of the following

dual congciousness, apprehends objects dilemma. Does the object cognitively

216 _BAUDDRA,”

The Bauddhas are divided into four sects.

1, The Vaibhdshikas, like the Nydya school, believe in separate in- divisible atoms for each of the four elements but perceptible by the eye; and with them existence is predicable of two entities, cognition and its objects, the latter being apprehended by the senses.

2. The Sautrdntikas affirm that objects are cognised by inference.

3. The Yogdchdras admit only intellect which produces the forms of

objects.

The Mddhyamikas hold both cognition and objects to be void (sénya Hindi sun) and confound existence and non-existence.!

Many treatises have been written on each of these divisions and there is considerable variance of opinion on questions of objective and subjective’ existence. Three sciences are regarded by them as important; the science of proof: the science of administration : the science of the interior life,

apprehensible arise from an entity or not? It does not, for that which is generated has no permanence, nor is it non-resultant, for what has not come in- to being ie non-existent. Ordo you hold that a past object is cognitively appre- hensible as begetting cognition? If so, it is nonsense because it conflicts with the apparent presentness of the object, and on sach a supposition, the sense or- gans might be apprehended. Farther is the percipibile, a simple atom or acom- plex body? ‘he latter it cannot be, this alternative being ejected by the dilemma as to whether the whole or part is perceived The former alternative is equally impossible, an atom being su- persensible. Intellect having therefore no other percipidile but itself, is shown to be its own percipibile, and laminous with its own light. Sarv. Sang Dar. p 24.

! The derivation of these torms is thas given by tho Sarva. Sang. Dar.

The Nihilists are excellent in assent- ing to that which their religious teacher announces, apd defective in interroga- tion, hence their conventional designa- tion of Midhyamikas or Mediocre. The Yogaéch4ras are so styled because while

they accept the four points of view pro- claimed by their spiritual guide, and the void of external things, they ask ‘why thas a void of the internal (or baseless- ness of mental phenomena) been ad- mitted.’ The name Sautréatika nrose from the fact that the Buddha said to certain of his disciples who asked what was the ultimate purport (anira), of the aphorism (sétra). ‘ As you have inquired the final purport of the aphorism, be Saa- tréntikas, Those that reject belief in a void, and that sensation alone is reality and that sensible ebjects are inferrible, hold all this to be absurd language (vt- ruddhé-bhdshd) and are known as Vai- bhashikas.

Whether the same sects yet subsist among the Banddhas of Ceylon, Tibet and trans-gangetic India and in China, Professor Gough thinks deserves inquiry. It may be safely affirmod that their con- tinnity ia as Httle endaring as that of the doctrine from which they sprung. One hundred and ten years after Bud- dha’s death ten propositions were put forward by the Bhikshus of Vaiséli, which were not of the master’s teaching, and condemned by that Council. V. Rockhill, Chap. IV. The history of

NASTIKA.

217

Néstila.! : Chirvdka, after whdm this school is named, was an unenlightened

eighicen schools produced by a great schism is briefly sketched in the follow- ing chapter.

1 This term signifies one who disowns the existence of a fature life. Chdrodka is mentioned in the Afahdbhdrata, ac- ‘’ cording to Prof. Cowell. (Colebrooke, I. 426, n.), as a rdkshasa who endea- voured by a false report of Bhima’s death to win the Pandavas in the moment of their triumph. The founding of the aect ‘is ascribed to Vrihaspati, whidse aphorisms, (Varhaspatya Sdtras) quoted by one of the commentators of the Ve- déuta, wore made the object of a long and fruitless search in India by Dr. Fitz Edward Halt. (Dr. Muir. Joarn. R. A.S. 299-314). Dr. Muir is not aivare how far this sect can be traced back in In- dian literature. Ndstikas (Nihilists), Pdshandfs (heretics), and yrevilers of the Vedas are mentioned in many parts of Mann’s Institutes, but itis not clear What sects are comprised ander these terms: traces of a sceptical spirit are found throughont Indian and indeed all literature, the common parasitic grewth on all systems of belief. Dr. Banerjea, clearly shows tho results of philosophical speculations on the Brah- manical creed, and kow small was the essential difference between the hercti- The Lokiyatikas (worldlings or prevalent in the world, from loka-dyata) are a branch of this sect according Lo Colebrooke, bué the term ig employed as a synonym for the Chdrvikas in the Sarva-Sangraha This latter work gives an exposition of their doctrine, which in

cal and so-called orthodox schools.

Darsana.

brief is that the end of man is enjoyment of sensual pleasure, the only hell, mun- dane pain, the only Supreme, an carth-

28

liberation, The four elements are the ori-

ly monarch and the only death. ginal principles from which when trans- formed into the body, intelligence is prodaced, as sugar with a ferment and other ingredients becomes an intoxi- lime and extract of catechn chewed toge- ther, posscss an exbilarating property not found in those substances ally. Tho soul being identical with tho body, the attribution of qualities, as fat- ness, leanness, &c., to the body is in- telligible as being the scat of self-con-

cating liquor, or as betel, areca,

sever-

sciousness. Inference is not admitted, {as smoke from fire), bocanse the invari- of the middle term with the major, foand likewise in tho

able connection

minor, does not possess its powcr of causing inforence by virtne of its exis- tence, as the eye, &&., are the canscs of perception, bat through its being known, The means of this connection being known, is nob perecption neither external, because in the ease of the past and fu- ture, the universal proposition, om: bracing the invariable connection of tho major and middle terms, cannot in every case be known, nor internal, since the mind is depondent on the senses ; it is not inference, because every inferexca requires another to establish it, cansing a retrogression ad infinitum sit is not testimony, nor comparison, abd giueo tha knowledge of the condition must precede the knowledge of its absence, it is only in the former caso that a knowledge of the universality of the proposition is possible, that is, a knowledge in the form of snch a connection betwoen the middlo term and major term, as is distinguished by the absence of such & condition, and as, again, the knowledge of the cendition

218 THE EIGHTEEN SCIENCES.

Bréhman. Its followéis are called by the Br&éhmans, Ndstikas or Nihilists. They recognise no existence apart from the four eYements, nor any source of perception save through the five organs of sense. They do not believe in 8. God nor in immaterial substances, and affirm faculty of thought to result from the equilibrium of the aggregate elements, Paradise, they regard as. a state in which man lives as he chooses, free from the control of another, and hell the state in which he lives subject to another’s rule. The whole end of man, they say, is comprised in four things: the amassing of wealth, women, fame and good deeds. They admit only of such sciences as tend to the promotion of external order, that is, a knowledge of just admin- istration and benevolent government. They are somewhat analogous to the sophists in their views and have written ‘many works in reproach of others, which rather serve as lasting memorials of their own ignorance.

THe Eienteen Sciences. (Athéra Vidya).

Having taken a brief survey of the nine schools of philosophy existing in this country, I proceed to state some of the points on which the Brahmans of the first six systems are agreed and thus brighten the interest of this exposition.

They say that be has attained the summit of knowledge who has garnered his stores of wisdom from this number of sciences and by fathom- ing their depths, satisfied the desire of his heart.

depends on that of the invariable con- nection, the fallacy of reasoning in a circle is produced. Hence by the im- possibility of knowing *the universality of a proposition inference is impossible. The chapter concludes with a quotation from Brihaspati in recommendation of the maxim ‘ eat and drink, for to-morrow we die,’ impnting the invention of religious rites to the desire of gaining a livelihood, and the authorship of the Vedas to buffoons, knaves, and demons. Abal Fazl’s concluding wards are fally justified. Itis this sect which appears to be denounced in the Bhagavad Gita (XVI. 10 ff), “Giving themselves up to insatiable luats, fall of deceit, vanity and folly, they cherish immoderate

sthoughts ending in death, accounting the enjoyment of their lusts their chief good. ‘This’ they say, ‘I have gained to-day ; that desire of my heart I shall obtain. This possession is now mine: that also shall be mine hereafter. Iam rich, I am noble. What other man is like unto me. I will give Jargesse. I will be merry.’ Tossed to and fro by many thoughts, enveloped in the meshes of delusion, devoted to their Insts, they go down to hell.” The Bhagavad Gita was probably not written before the third century, A. D., and the thoughts and language strikingly recall the Chris- tian Scriptares from which it is suspect- ed with much reason, that it drew its inspiration.

THE EIGHTERN SCIENCES. 219

The first division consists of the Rig Veda: the second is the Yajur Veda : the third is the Séma Veda; and the fourth, the Atharvan.

These four are considered to be divine books, as already mentioned. Each of them treats of four matters :—(1). Vidhi, precept and its cogency ; (2), Arthavdda,! praise and its recompense; (3). Afantra, invocation and prayer which are profitable in particular cases; (4). Némadheya, appellation of important acts. Hach of them also treats of three things :—(1). Karma, exterior works; (2). Updsand, religions meditation ; (3). Jadnd, perfected

. knowledge.

The fifth, the Purdzas. Kighteea distinct works are styled by this name. They explain in a clear manner the difficulties oceurring in the four Vedas above mentioned, and each of, them treats of the following five subjects :— (1). The creation of the world. .(2). The dissolution thereof. (3). Genea- logies of various families. (4). Account of the fourteen Manvantaras. These are fourteen Manus or holy spirits who, during the whole life of Brah-

Lin the Mimiwsd, “ Vidhi refers to those passages of the Veda, which being in the potential, imperative, or passive future participle, have a directly in- junctive force; ” Arthavdda refers to those which explain and illustrate the Object of some act enjoined by a former Vidhi.” (Colebraoke, I. 327, note by Prof. Cowell.) A sketch of the general tenor of the Vedas will be found in Colebrooke, I. 8-102. The Rigveda con- tains mantras or prayers, chiefly en- comiastic whence the name, from the verb rich te praise, and the term has be- Come applicable to such passages of any Veda, as are subject to rules of prosody. The first Veda in Vydsa’s compilation Comprises most of these texts and is called the Rig Veda. The Yajur Veda relates chiefly te oblations and sacrifices as its name implies, from the root Yaj, to worship. It contains some passages called vick as being in metre. It is di- vided into two the white Yajur Veda and the Black. The first is the shortest of the Vedas, and both contain prayers and invocations. The distinction of co- lounis from the disgorging of the ori- ginal Veda by a disobedient discipie

at the command of his preceptor Vai- Sampdayana, the rest of whose disciples were instructed to pick up aud swallow the soiled texts, which were then called ‘black’ This they did in the form of partridges, (tittiri) hence the name Tait- tiriya, applied to it. ‘The disciple over whelmed with sorrow, invoked the sun who sapplied a new revelation, called the white or pare. The Sdmaveda derives its name from its efficacy in removing sin (from the root Sho, to destroy). The prayers in this are intended to be chanted (Colebrooke T. 71). The Atharva- veda, consists of formulas obviating the effects of error, or untoward incident in the performance of a sacrifice, and is es- sentially different from the other three Vedas, which are sometimes mentioned withont auy notice of the fourth, from the difference in its use and pnrport. The derivation of the word is said to be, according to Monier Williams, from an obsolete word athar, fire, and hence a priest who has to do with fire and Soma ; and Atharvan is also the name of the priest, represented as a Prajépati, who waa the first to obtain fire and offer Soma, and the author of the Veda.

220 THE KIGHIEEN SCIENCES.

mé, will appear successively for the guidance of mankind, and sustain by their power the burden of the world. The life of each is seventy- one times the four ages, a revolution of the four ages being four million three hundred and twenty thousand years.! They likewise mention the fourteen Indras associated with them, (for they say that during Brahma’s life, fourteen deities will successively rule the celestial

regions), and the actions by means of which they attain to this dignity.

There are further the legendary narratives of celebrated monarchs. The names of the Purdnas are:—(1) Matsya. (2). Mldrkanda. (3). Bhavishya. (4). Bhagavata. (5). Brahma-vaivarta. (6), Brahmdnda. (7).

Brahma. (8). Vayu. Agni, (13).

Skaunda. (18). Gartda3

(9). Vamana. Nedrada. (14). Padma. (15). Linga.

(10). Vishnu.

(11). Vardha. (12). (16). Kérma. (17).

There are eighteen other books called Tpa- -purdnas, explanatory of the foregoing, which are said by some to be of recent origin’ Their names are:—(1). Sanatkumdra, originally Saura, so called from the name of its compiler.. (2). Néradzyc. This was also the name of a Purdna and

the same may be said of some others. accounts not given in the Puranas, and they designations of their originals. (2). Nérasinha. (5). Kapila, (6). Ménava.

(10). Brahminda. (11). Kali and also Kalikd. (12). Mithes- (14). S’dmba.

Durvisasa. (9). Veruna. vara, (13). Nanda.

Bhdgavata. (18). Karma.

(15). Aditya.

The Upa-purdnas in fact, contain are styled by the (3). S’ivadharma. (4). (7). S’dukara* (8). Ausanasa.

(16) Pardésara, (17).

The sixth of the sciences is called Dharma-S‘dstra, (institutes of the

1 Ser n. 4, p. 174 of this volume.

2A few variations occur in these names, some lists of the Purinas omit- ting a few and eubstituting others. ‘Their general contents are given in Wil- sun’s preface to his translation of the Vishna Purana.

8 The text is here doubifal, bat this reading seems to be tenublo. The great- er number of these are not procurable, and the names of anly a few are spocified in tho least objectionable anthorities. In the few instances known (I quote Wilson) they differ little in extent or subject from the Purdniws themselves.

4% Thia name docs not occur in either of Wilson’s lisis, which substitate Saura,

the name given by Abnal Fazl, as the original of the first, Sanatkunnira. Those lists are taken from the Devi Bhigavata and the Reva-Khanda, authorities of questionable weight. Tho former pretends to be considered the authentic Bhigavata which Wilson does notadmit. The name of Bhiégavata, he says, doos not occur in any authentic list amongst the Upa-purinas, and it has been placed there to prove that there are two works so entitled, of which the Purina isthe Dovi Bhagavata, and the Upa-purina, tho Sri Bhigavata, The true reading shoald be Bhargava, the Purana of Bhrigu,: the Devi Bhégavata is rot evon an Upn-purana.

TNE EIGHTEEN SCIFNCES. ~ 221

law) or doctrine relating to good works. This is also taken from the Vedas, and accompanied by a multiplicity of detail. It is also called Smritt,! and has a similar number of divisions. The principal subjects of

these books are three. The duties of the four castes regarding religious worship, the duties of administration, and the expiation of sins. The names of the eighteen codes of memorial law (smriti) are as

follows :— (1). Manu. (6). Gautama.

(2). Yijravalkya.

(15). Kdtydyanu. (16). following two. (17). Vydsa.

(8). Atrt. (4). Angiras. (7). PardSara. (8). S’ankha Likhita.

Haréta. (11). Vasishtha. (12). Yama. (18), S’dtdtapa. Vrihaspatt. (18). Daksha®

(5). Usanas (9). Vishnu. (10).

(14). A’pastamba. To these some have added the

The names of the eighteen (Ypa-smriti or minor law codes are—

(I). Angivas. (2). Jébdli.

dkshi, (6). Kdsyapa, (7).

(10). Janaka.

Kapinjala. (15). Baudhdyana. (16). Kandda. Sumantu.

(3). Nachiketa. Vydsa. (8). Sanathumdra,

(4). Shanda. (5). Laug- (9). Shatrzu.3

(11). Vydghra. (12). Katydyana. (18). Jdtukarnya. (14).

(17). Visedmitra. (18).

1 Besides the evidence of precept from an extant rovelation (sru¢i), anothor source of ovidouce is founded on tho recollections (smyiti) of the ancient sages. These recollections have come down by unbroken tradition, and are known under the title of Diarma-S’dstra, the institutes of law, civil and religious, This sacred code of law comprises a system of duties, religious and civil. The latter inclades law, private and criminal, the forms of judicial procedure, rales of pleading, law of evidence, adverse titles, onths, ordeal, &c. By the terms Sruti and Smriti, it is signified that tho Voda has preserved the words of revela- tion, while the system of law records the sense expressed in other words. It has been promulgated by thirty-six ancient Sages, named in three verses of the Padma Purina. The Hindus revere these institutes as containing a system of sacred law, confirmed by the Veda itself in a text thus transluted by Sir W. Joues.

“God, having created the four classes, had not yet completed his work ; but in addition to it, lest the royal: and mili- tary classes should become insupportable through their power and ferocity, he produced the transcendent body of Jaws: since law is the King of Kings, far more poworful and rigid than they. Nothing can be mightier than the law, by whose aid as by that of the mightiest monarch, even the weak may prevail over the strong.” V.Colebrooke, pp. 337-466.

% These legislators are sometimes classed, according to Monicr Williams, in threo divisions under the three heads of Sdttrika, Rdjasa nnd Tdmasa, accord- ing to the tendency of their writings.

8 Or Shatarzu. Doubtless the Shat- tringa a well-known work on law. ‘Tho Shattringanmata was a collection of the opinions of 836 Munis of whom the names of all 18 mentioned in the above list, occur; and several of the second. In Tanaka, and Jdtikarnya, Abul Fazl writes 2 for j.

222 THE EIGHTEEN SCIENCES.

The seventh is S’ikshé (Phonetics), the science of letters.) _ The eighth is Kalpa, ceremonial, a science which treats of ten kinds of duties from the beginning of marriage to the time when the son is invested with the Brahmanical thread; viz., the marriage; cohabitation: the third month from pregnancy to the fifth: the sixth to the eighth: the birth: the naming of the child: carrying him out to see the sun: feeding him: cutting his hair: investing him with the sacred thread. At each of these times special prayers and important ceremonies are required.

The ninth is Vydkarana, the science of grammer and_ linguistic analysis, upon which are based the rules for the composition of letters. Firstly, they reckon fifty-two letters under three kinds. Fourteen are vowels (Svara) which are both letters and diacritical accents, and can be pronounced without extraneous adjunct: These are, a (Ww): 4 (qt): i (x): 4 (&): 0 (8): GH): ri (9): ri): 11 (): Hi (@): (diphthongs) e (%): ai (®): o (ft): au (Wt). Thirty-three letters are called Vyanjana,* consonants which cannot be sounded without a vowel. These are k (a): kh (&): g iw): gh (@): 8 (@) which is a letter having a nasal sound produced by the throat and nose, ch (3): ‘chh (&): j(@): jh (mH): i (@): t (€): th (ws): d (ws): dh (ze): n (wm): 6 (a): th (a): d(@): dh (wy): (4): p (4): ph (%): b(@): bh (#): m (a): y (@): v (X): 1 (@): Vv (): & (w): sh (§): 8 (8): h(@). There are five other letters, one of which is called Anusvéra, sounded like kaz with a quiescent nasal. Another is vt- sarga (a surd breathing), like the final kin kah, A third is called jihud- miliya, a letter between an h and a kh, and occurs as a medial and is sound- ed from the root of the tongue.6 The fourth is called gaja-kumbha kriti, 3 In Hindi btnjan, as Abul Fazl trans-

literates. I think it better to adhere, for the sake of uniformity, to the Sans-

1 For these following six doctrines of Phonetics, Prosody, Grammer, Etymo- logy, Astronomy and Ceremonial, com-

monly called the Vedangas, see Max Miiller’s History of Sanskrit Literature, p. 118, ff. The first are considered requisite for reading the Veda, the two next for understanding it, and the last two for employing it at sacrifices 9’ikshd is derived from fak to be able. and means @ desire to know. The doctrine of the 8’ikshéd was embodied in the Aranyakas, and perhaps the Bréhmanas. Kalpa or Ceremonial is the fifth and most complete Vedanga. The ceremonies mentioned by Abul Faz}, are described in the Grihya-Sétras and are briefly alluded to by Miiller: p. 264.

krit orthography throughont, rather than alternate from one to the other as the text does and not seldom with corrapt or unintelligible readings.

The third Vedanga is Vydkarana or Grammar, represented by the Gramma- rians ending with PAnini, whose work however, superseded those of his prede- cessors to such an cxtent that little bat their names and a few rales under their authority have come down to as, V. Hist. Sansk. Lit.

8 This and the wpadhmdntya spirants are regarded by Whitney as pure gram- matical abstractions, devised like the

223 The fifth is

THE EIGHTEEN SCIENCES.

& quiescent medial letter approximating in sound to a bhd. ardhabinda, a quiescent nasal, like a suppressed nia (w).t

Such is the exposition of the Sanskrit alphabet as far as I have been able to transcribe it. Some points which it has been beyond my power adequately to explain I have but alluded to. The last five letters are employed with vowels and consonants alike, and each consonant is capable of being vocalized with the fourteen vowels. At the present day the fourteen vowels (svara) are called médira* and two being commonly omitted, twelve only are employed. Each written letter is separate and unconnected with the next. Letters are of four kinds. If without a moveable vowel a letter is called (vydijana). If it be a simple ‘short vowel or if it add one mdtra to a quiescent long vowel, it is called hrasva.* Twice the prosodial time of a short vowel is called dérgha, and if longer than two (é, e. three mdtras) it is called pluta or prolated.

Right modes of utterance are reckoned, viz., from the middle of the chest : the throat: the root of the tongue : between the teeth : the nose: the palate: the lip: and thé crown of the head, There is considerable diversity of opinion in all that they discuss but I have chosen the most gen- erally accepted view. Before the writer had gained any acquaintance with this language, he considered the grammatical structure of Arabic to be without a rival, but he is now more fully aware of the immense labours of Hindu philologists, and the powerful regulative influence of their system.

The tenth science is Nirukta, (etymology),.a detailed commentary of

Vedic texts.5

long 2 vowel in order to round ont the alphabet to greater symmetry. Their Use is to take the place of s or r before & surd labial or gattural and their sound ig in the direction of the German ch. and f. sounds; when written at all they are Commonly transliterated by x and ¢. They are now obsolete and replaced by the Visarga.

1 This is the anundsika sign wy or the anuavéra, written above a syllable to imply a nasal infection of the preceding vowel. Some MS. employ the w where a nasalized (anundsika) vowel is to be recognized and elsewhere the’, but the two, Whitney observes, are doubtless originally and properly equivalent. The Gaja-kumbha kriti (lit. form of the fron-

tal globe of an elephant’s head) is the sign < of the upadhmdntya spirant, pro- nounced like the Greek ¢$.

8 Properly the prosodial time of a short vowel.

8 These are the long i and the long 1: the latter does not occur in a single genuine word in the language, and is added, says Whitney, for the sake of an artifical symmetry.

4 Abul Fazl writes rhasva for hrasva,

5 This is the fourth Vedanga as re- presented by the Nirukta of Yaska and applies to Vedio etymologies exclusively. Like Panini’s Grammar where the science of Vydkarana took shape as a Veddnga, so Ydska was one of the last authors to embody the lexicography of Vedic terms

Ay * 22-4. THE RIGHTEEN SCTENCES.

The eleventh Jyotisha! is on astronomy and its wonders.

Tac twelfth Chandas® is on metre and the classes of verse.

‘The last six are called Angas,® that is to say that a knowledge of these six is necessary to the comprehension of the Vedas.

• The thirteenth is the Mvmdmsé of which the three kinds have been

already mentioned. |

The fourteenth is the Nydya which has been summarily treated among

the sciences.

The fifteenth is the A’yur-veda, the science of anatomy, hygiene,

nosology and therapeutics.

in one work. It is important to dis- tingnish his Nirwkte, the text of which is usually called Nighantu, from his com- mentary of the Nirwkta to which the term Nirukta alone is often applied. The Nirukta consists of three parts; the Naighantuka, the Naigama, and the Dai-

vata, in five chapters, containing lists of

synonyms, words and Divinities. Max Miler points out that the Greeks and Hindus atone of all nations have had inde- pendent conceptions of the sciences of Logic and Grammar, but they started from opposite points. The Greeks began with philosophy and endeavoured to ad- jast its terminology to the facts of lan- guage. The indus began with etymo- logy and their generalisations never went beyond arrangement of grammatical forms, partly dae to the sacred character of the Vedic hymns, wherein a mispro- nunciation might mer their roligious effect. Thns the grammar of the latter has ended in -a colossal pedantry, while that of the Greeks still inflaences modern eultnre throughout the civilised world. It is remarkable that while the Greeks were long in arriving at a complete nomencla- ture of the parts of speech, Plato know- ing but two, the noun and the verb, and the preposition not occurring till the time of Aristarchus, the Windus had carly an exhaustive classification. V. Hiat. Sansk. Lit. p. 160, ff.

1 Jyotisha is the last of the Veddngas,

It is taken from the first Veda.*

Tts literature is scanty and is mainly repre- sented by a small treatise representing the earliest stage of Hindu astronomy. Its practical objoct is not to teach this science but to convey such knowledge of the heavenly bodies ag is necessary for fixing the auspicious times for Vedic sacrifices. Ibis in fact a sacred calon- dar, the moon being looked upon as the chief means of measaring time, a fact indicated by its etymology, its namo be- ing the same in Sanskrit, Greek and German and derived from a root that originally means to measnre. Tho con- neotion between the names of moon and month likewise indicates the existence of an ancient lunar chronology. Ibid.

& Chandas or Metre is the second Ve- dénga and is represented by Pingala- nfga’s Metric which treats of Prakrit as well as Sanskrit metres, an@ is not older than the Mahibhashya, the famous commentary on Pinini. Léid.

8 Lit, ‘a limb’ Jt ig snid of Svaha

_ the wife ef Agni, the goddess presiding

over burnt-offerings, that her body consists of the four Vedas, and that her limbs are the six Angas, or members of the Voda. The name docs not imply the existence of six distinct books, bat the admission of six subjects of study for the reading, understanding, and sacrificial employ- ment of the Vedas. Ibid,

4% It contains eight departments: 1 S‘alye, surgery ; 2. S’dldkya, inquiry into

KARMA-VIPAKA, 225

The sixteenth is Dhanur-veda, the science of archery and of the use of various other weapons, taken from the second Veda.!

The seventeenth is Géindharva-veda, the science of music, vocal, instrumental and practical, taken from the third or Sima-veda.

The eighteenth is Artha-sdéstrva, treating of the acquisition of wealth and its profitable employment. These four are termed subordinate or Upa-vedas.

The arts and sciences cultivated throughout the extent of Hindustan are too numerous to mention, but somewhat of them shall be briefly reviewed as an acceptable offering to the curious, in the hope that it may prove interesting as well as an incentive to inquiry.

Kexua-virsKa,

Or the ripening of actions. This is a system of knowledge of an amaz- ing and extraordinary character, in which the learned of Hindustan concur without dissentient opinion. It reveals the particular class of actions per- formed in a former birth which have occasioned the events that befall men in this present life, and prescribes the special expiation of each sin, one by One. It is of four kinds.

Tus First Kip discloses the particular action which has brought a man into existence in one of the five classes into which mankind is divid- ed, and the action which occasions the assumption of a male or female

form. A Kshatriya who lives continently, will, in his next birth, be born & Bréhman, <A Vaisya who hazards his transient life to protect a Brah- man, will become a Kshatriya. A Stidra who lends money without interest and does not defile his tongue by demanding repayment, will be born a Vaisya. A Mlechchha. who serves a Bréhman and eats food from his

Giseases of the head and its organs: 3, Kédya-chikitsd, treatment of diseases af- fecting the whole body: 4. Bhita-vidya, treatment of diseases of the mind sup- Posed to be prodaced by demoninacal inflaence: 5. Kawmdra-bhritya, treat- ment of children: 6. Agada-tantra, doo- trine of antidotes: 7. Rdsdyana-tantra, doctrine of elixirs. 8. Véjtkarana-tantra, rales for increasing generative powers. Monior Williams. Sansk. Diot.

1 Regarded as an Upa-veda connected with the Yajur-veda, and ascribed to Visvé-mitra; or, according to others, to Bhyign. bid.

29

& According to Monier Williams, it is the science of polity, or moral and politi- eal government.

8 That is, the good ond evil conse- quences in this life of human acts per- formed in provions births. This work of VisveSvara-bhatta explains expiatory rites to be performed in cases of disease, Bupposed to be the punishment of of- fences committed in a previous state of existence, written in 9’lokas in the form of & dialogue between Sakuntalé Bharata and Satétapa-Bhrigu, Monier Williams,

226 EARMA-VIPAKA,

house till his death, will become a S’édra. A Bréhman who undertakes the profession of a Kshatriya will become a Kshatriya, and thus a Kehatriya will become a Vaisya, and a Vatsya a S‘idra, and a S‘idra.a Mlechchha. Whosoever accepts in alms a Krishnajina ’ or skin of the black antelope, or the bed on which a man has died, or a buffalo, or receives an alms in the shrine of Kurukshetra, will, in the next birth, from a man become & woman. Any woman or Mlechchha, who in the temple of Badari-Nardyanu* sees the form of Ndardyana, and worships him with certain iucantations, will in the next birth, if a woman, become a man, and if a Allechchha, a Brah- man. This shrine isin the hills north of Hardwar. They say that for any one who has not an accurately defined caste, the horoscope of the result of any particular action is taken, and the place of Mars is observed. Whatever may be its position, the dominus domds shows the caste of the inquirer, and the dominant of the seventh house of Mars shows the caste 6f the inquirer in his former birth. If Venus and Jupiter, his caste is Brihman: if the sun and Mars, a Kshatriya: if the moon, a Vaisya: if

Saturn, a S’udra: if the head and tail of the Dragon, a Aflechchha®

1 Probably on account of its sacred uses a8 in the ceremony of binding tho Brahmanical thread ond serving reli- gious students for a couch or covering. The skin of the antelope is taken asa symbol of the Brahmachérin state, be- cause the pupil wears a skin. Miiller. Hist. Saunst. Lit. p. 409. The Brabma- charin isa Hindu religious student bound by vows of obedience and chastity.

3 Commonly Badrinéth, a peak of the Himalayan range in GarhwA&l Dist. N. W. P. reaching to a height of 23,210 feet above the sea. Its glaciers are the source of the Alaknanda river. On one of ite shoulders at an elevation of 10,400 feet, and 56 miles N. EB. of Srinagar, is another shrine of Vishnu bearing the samé name. The existing temple is snid to have been erected 800 years ogo by Sankara Sw&mi who bronght up the figure of the deity from the bottom of the river. Below the shrine is a sacred tank in which pilgrims bathe. The god is daily provided with food, and served on vessels of gold and silver.

Immense numbers of pilgrims visit Badrindéth annually, 50,000 persons hay- ing in some years attended the great festival. I, G,

8 The Jast chapter of AlbirGni’s In- fica is occupied with the complicated explanation of the astrological calcula- tions of the Hindus. I refer the curious reader to the tnbalar representations of the different planets, their aspects, in- fluences, houses and indications, t0- gether with the tables of the Zodiacal signs and their dominants which are there given. Tho science has always been more profitable to the astrologer than to the dupe, and its truth subordinated to its emoluments. Jupiter, Vonus and the moon ara accounted the lucky planets, while Saturn, Mars, the Sun and the Dragon’s head, though the latter is not in reality a star, unlacky. Mercury is variable nnd depends for its fortune on the planet with which it is combined. Sometimes two planets indicate the same thing, exercise the same influence and stand in the samo relation to the event

KARMA-VIPAKA. 227

Tae Seconp Kinp shows the strange effects of actions on health of body and in the production of manifold diseases. Physicians attribute these to constitution, but this science to the results of former conduct. Hindu philosophers class diseases under three heads:—(1). Those that can be cured by medicinal treatment; (2). Those that are removable by ob- serving the following courses of procedure; (3). Those that require the application of both. To diagnose each of these, certain symptoms are recognised which are classed under three states, vz., (1). actions deliberately committed in a state of wakefulness ; (2). such as are unconsciously done in that condition ;! (3). and those that are effected during sleep. In the first, the sickness is incapable of remedy; in the second a remedy can be applied; in the third case, medicinal treatment to some extent restores health, but there is liability to relapse, Disorders of the heart, they con- sider, as originating in intention, and those of the body from inadvertency and error. Volumes have been written on this subject and the advice of physicians disregarded as unprofitable. Some of these causes of sickness are here set down for purposes of illustration.

Heapacue is caused by former violent language used to father or mother, The remedy is to make the images of Kasyapa* and Aditi of two tolahs of gold and give them to the poor. The first of these two is regarded as the father of the Devatdés, and the latter as the mother.

Mapyess is the punishment of disobedience to father and mother. The cure is to perform the Chdndrdyana,’ which is to eat one mouthful on

2 One of the Prajdpatis or mind.born sons of Brahmé. He married thirteen of the daughters of Daksha, of whom

in question, in which case the preference is given to the larger. he friendsbip and enmity of the planets among cach

other, and the ivflaence of their dominus domds is of great importance, and at Particalar times their domintum, the time of which is computable, loses its original character, Many of Albirdni’s terms are taken directly from the Greek.

L “By whos is a mon impelled, O Varshmeya!’’ says Arjuna in the Bhaga- vad Gité, “when he commits sin even against his will, as if compelled by force ?? “It is Inst; replies Kyishna “it igs wrath born from the ‘ passion’ mode: know, that this all-devonring, all-defiling is here our foe. Knowledge is enveloped by this which is the eternal foe of the wise man .., and is an insa- tiable fame,” Davies’ Translation,

the first was Aditi by whom he had the twelve A’dityas. See the Vishnu Pur. Wilson. v. also Vol. II. 38.

8 This expiatory penance is continued increase and diminution of food by one mouthful daring the dark and light fort- nights of the moon, beginning with 15 at the fall moon, to 0 at the new, and increasing in like manner. If this pen- ance begins with the fall moon it is callod Pipilikd-madhya (having tho mid- dle thin like an ant): if with the now moon, Fava-madhya, having the middle thick like a barley-oorn. Monier Wil- liams, Sansk, Lex,

228 KARMA-VIPAKA,

the first day, and to increase the food daily by the same quantity for one month, and then to decrease in the same measure till one mouthful is agaiu reached, and to make two images as above of two tolahs of gold and bestaw them in alms with one cow.

Erivepsy results from having administered poison to another at the command of a superior. The cure consists of these two images, a cow, a piece of land and thirty-two sers of sesame-seed, with a repetition of some incantations in the name of Mahddeva.

Pain iN THE YES arises from baving looked upon another’s wife. The cure is Chandrdyana.

Buiypyess ia the punishment of a matricide which is followed by mauy years of suffering in hell. The cure is Préjdpatya,’ which is of five kinds :—(1). Bestowing a cow in charity; (2). Or one tolak of gold; (3). Or feeding twelve Bréhmans ; (4). Or throwing into the fire ten thousand times a mixture of sesame-seed, butter, honey and sugar; (4). Or walk- ing a yojana, bare foot toa shrine, Let one or several of these be done in charity thirty times. Or let him make a boat of four tolahs of gold, the mast of silver, and six paddles of copper. Or, if it be a punishment of disobedience to father and mother, the cure is, as already described, the images of KaSyapa and Aditi. These should not be of less than two tolahs.

Douspness is the consequence of killing a sister. The cure is to bestow — in charity a cow made of four tolahs of gold, its horns being of two tolahs of silver, its hump of two or three mdshas of copper with a brass vessel for milk, and for seven days he should eat a mixture of curds, butter, urine and cowdung.

Conic results from having eaten with an impious person or a liar. The cure is to fast for three days, and to give twelve tolahs of silver in charity.

STONE IN THE BLADDER? is the punishment of incest with a step-mother. The cure is Madhu-dkenu (honey-milch cow). Let it be supposed that a milch-cow of honey is formed thus:—Fourteen vessels full of honey, each of which shall contain a man and a quarter, must be placed with one tolah of gold in front to represent the mouth; four sers of sugar- candy must represent her tongue; thirty-two sers of fruit, her teeth ; pearls for the two eyes; and two sticks of lignum aloes for her horns;

1 Sacred to Prajépati. It signifies the twelve dnys and likewise a form of mar- giving away of the whole of one’s pro- riage. Monior Williams. perty before entoring on the life of an % Abul Fazl writes &lwo Siw for ascetic. It isalsoa kind of fast lasting - Aaitio Siw.

—

KARMA-VIPAKA. 229 two plantains stand for her two ears; and barley-flour for her teats, with three sticks of sugar-cane for each leg. A white woollen cloth is thrown over the vessels to represent her hide, and Ddba,i which is a particular kind of grass, is strewn above it. The hoofs are to be of silver, the hump of a ser and a quarter of copper: the tail of silk, thirty fingers in length, with skeins* of silk eleven fingers long hanging there- from. Two pieces of red cloth must be thrown over her neck, and seven heaps of grain, each of two sers weight, must be made, and a brass vessel placed in front, and another vessel full of honey set near to represent her calf, and a copper ® vessel filled with sesame-seed. Next, certain ineanta- tious are made, and prayers are said, and alms given.

Lamengss is the result of hasting kicked a Bréhman. The cure is to bestow in charity a horse made of a tolah of gold, and to feed one hun- dred and eight Brahmans. .

Fever arises from killing an innocent Kshatriya. The cure: thirteen Bréhmans should read incantations in the name of Mahdédeva one hun- dred times, and sprinkle water over his image.

Consumption is the punishment of killing a Brdhman. A lotus flower of four tolahs weight of gold should be made, and the ceremony of the Homa* performed and alms given to righteous Brdhmans.

Tumour is caused by killing a wife without fault on her part. The cure is to spread a black antelope-skin (Krishndjina) and place thereon a heap of sesame-seed and a hundred tolahs or move of gold, and read in- cantations and perform the Homa oblation. But the acceptance of such an offering is considered blameable, .

AstHMa results from having accepted of this oblation, or of one of the sixteen great offerings, or of an alms at Kurukshetra. The cure is to take a buffalo of iron, with hoofs and horns of lead, and to make a Bectarial mark of stone on its forchead, garland it with flowers of ‘the Kaner (Nerium odorum), and place upon ita black blanket and four tolahs of gold, and three man and a half of pulse (Afésh, Phaseolus mungo). The performer must have a sectarial mark drawn upon his forehead with the fingor. The accepter of this charity is not woll regarded,

1 The Kuéa, Poa Cynosaroides; a sac- Vificial grass, A Bréhman when hoe Teads the Vedas, must, according to Ma- hu (Institutes, II. 76), sit on kuéa gross With the points to the east.

2 The word in the text is incomplete, Probably (sloyzyf is intended.

8 A variant reads thirty for thig word.

4 This is an oblation to the gods made by casting clarified butter into the fire, accompanied by prayers and inyoca- tions.

230 KARMA-VIPASKA.

Dysentery is the punishment for robbing a house. The cure is to give in alms a house and its necessary furniture, and seven kinds of grain, thirty-two sers of each kind, a handmill, a pestle and mortar, a repository for drinking water, a kitchen-hearth, a broom, a cow, and money according to means, ;

Tue Tuirp Kinp indicates the class of actions which have caused sterility and names suitable remedies.

A woman whose husband dies before her, was in a former birth of a great family and followed a stranger and on his death consigned herself to the flames, The cure is self-martyrdom by austerities, or suicide by throwing herself into snow.

A woman who does not menstruate, in a former existence while in her courses, roughly drove away the children of her neighbours who had come as usual to play at her house. The cure is to fillan earthen vessel with water from a hundred wells, and to throw therein a betel-nut and one masha of gold, anoint it with perfumes and give it to a Bréhman. She should also give five, seven, nine or eleven kinds of fruit to children to eat.

Steriniry ’ is occasioned by a man or woman in a former birth having sold the children of other people, or the young of an oviparous animal, or reproached others for barrenness. Cure: the man and woman should enter the water at the meeting of two streams, wrapped in a single sheet, and bathe, and reciting certain incantations, pray to Mahddeva and give one mohur each to eleven Brdhmans, and a cow in alms on certain conditions, and make two images of Kasyapa and Aditi of two tolahs of gold each, and making an image of Vishnu in his dwarf incarnation (Vd- mana), bestow if in charity. And they should also fill eight winnowing- baskets with seven kinds of grain, and lay upon it a cloth and cocoanuts and various kinds of fruit, with flowers of saffron, and sandal-wood, and give each of these to a virtuous woman, and hear the recital of the Harivansa,? which is the conclusion of the Mahdbhdrata.

A woman whose son dies shortly after his birth ig thus punished for having in a former birth followed a common practice in Hindustan of expos- ing any child to die that is born when the moon is in the lunar statiou

| Suturwan, lit. mule-like, and signi- It contains 16,374 verses in three seo- fies a barren woman, or having but one tions; 1. Harivanéa, a description of child. the creation of the world, and the

3 See, p. 285, Vol. II. The name history of the solar and lunar races ; 2. signifies the family of Kyishna (as idon- Vishnu-parvan, a biography of Krishna ; tified with Vishnu). It is sapplementary 3. Bhavishya-purvan, an accoont of the to the great epic on the bistory and fature condition of the world and its

adventures of Krishna and his family. corruptions. Monier Williams,

KARMA-VIPAKA. 23

called Afila (v. Scorpionis) or Aglesha (a2 1 and 2 Cancri) or near the end of Jyeshthd (a Scorpionis, Antares), and a birth is especially a matter of reproach in Aft%ila. The cure is to make a cow of four tolahs of gold, its hoofs of a tolah of silver, jewels for her tail, brass bells on her neck, a calf of a tolak of gold, its hoofs being of half a ¢olah of silver. ;

A wosan who gives birth to only daughters is thus punished for having contemptuously regarded her husband from pride. The cure is to Plate the horns of a white cow with four tolaks of gold and burnish its hoofs with four tolahs of silver, and make a hump of one ser and a quarter of copper and a vessel of two sers and a balf of brass, and bestow this jn charity. One hundred Brdéhmans should also be fed and she should fashion a figure of the deity of tex: mdshas and two surkhs! of gold, and reciting incantations, give alms and feed fifty Brahmans.

A woman who has had but one son, is punished for having taken away a calf from its dam. Cure: let her giveaway a fine milch-cow with ten tolahs of gold.

A woman who has given birth to a son that dies and to a daughter that lives, has, in her former existenco, taken animal life. Some say that she had killed goats. The cure is the fast of the Chdndrdyana, a cow given in charity and the feeding of twelve Bréhmans,

A woman who has continued in a state of pregnancy for sixteen years, has in a former birth been burnt when pregnant; the cure is an alms of Hiranya-garbha

BEING A MAID-SERVANT is the punishment for having in a former exis- tence, from ignorance, had criminal intimacy with the husband of another and been burnt for his sake. The cure is, if she be in the house of a Sidra, to convey her to the house of a Vaisya, and thus by grada- tion of caste to a Bréhman’s, where she should remain in service till her death.

In order to discover whether these punishments are for the deeds of the man or the woman, they should both take the horoscopes of the results of particular actions. If in the horoscope, either the fifth or eleventh (mansion), shows the ascendens to be the Sun, Mars, or Saturn or the head or tail of the Dragon (ascending or descending node), and these affect the character of the woman (as based on the three modes of goodness, passion and darkness) which is considered under the influence of Saturn, the

1 See p. 354, Vol. I. p. 163. The text has incorrectly sopa- 3 One variant “ with arrows.” rated these two words and carried 8 That is, the figure of Brahmé. Seo ‘Garbha’ to the next paragraph.

232 SVARA.

punishment is reckoned to be that of the woman, otherwise it appertains to the man. If in both mansions, the results apply to both.t

Tne Fourtn Kixp treats of riches and poverty, and the like. Whoevor distributes alms at auspicious times, as during eclipses of the moon and sun, will become rich and bountiful (in his next existence). Whoso at these times, visits any place of pilgrimage, especially Ilahébés (Allahabad), and there dies, will possess great wealth, but will be avaricious and of surly disposition. Whosoever when hungry and with food before him, hears the supplication of a poor man and bestows it all upon him, will be rich and liberal. But whosoever has been deprived of these three opportuni- ties, will be empty-handed and poor in his present life. The cure is to fulfil scrupulously the duties of his state to whichsoever of the five classes he belongs, and also at Kurukshetra, in times of eclipse of the moon and sun, to bury in the ground a piece of gold, if it be but one mdsia, as an oblation.

Works have been written on each of these four kinds, detailing the causes, symptoms, and remedies of these actions. I have but adduced a little as an exemplar of much by way of illusration.

Svara*

Is the extraordinary science of predicting events by observing the manner in which breath issues from the nostrils. The expiration of breath

i Each of the Zodiacal signs has pe- culiar qualities, and these have been tabulated by Albirani, from the Laghu- jatakam. The cardinal points of Hinda astrology, as he observes, are the plan- ets, zodiacal signs and the houses. The nature of the aspect of every sign de- pends upon the nature of the ascendens which at a given moment rises above the horizon. The aspect between one sign and the fourth or eleventh follow- ing, is & fourth part of an aspect: that between one sign and the fifth or ninth following, ie half an aspect ; between the sixth and tenth, three quarters, and be- tween a sign and the seventh following, a whole aspect. If a planet stand in signs which in relation to its rising, are the 10th, llth, 12th, 1st, 2nd, 8rd and 4th signa, ita nature changer for the better:

if in other signs for the worse. The Houses indicate severally, various parts of the body, future events as to life, property, disposition, the influences of particular planets and Zodiacal signs, &c. Some of the signs are male and others female alternately from Aries to Pisces. The firat half of each male sign is unlacky, as under the influence of the sun which prodaces males, while the second half is lacky under the in- fluence of the moon which produces fe- mates. Women are indicated by the seventh House which ig under the in- fluence of Saturn, as Abni Fazl rightly observes.

$ In Hindi sur. The word signifies sound or masical tone, or air breathed through the nostrils.

SVARA, 233

from the nostrils is in three ways. The first is when it comos principally from the left nostril, and this they ascribe to the influence of the moon. It is then called Idé (vital spirit), or Chandra-nddi.! The second is chiefly from the right nostril, and is called Pingala (sun, or fire) and Surya-nddi. The third is when the breath issues from the nostrils equally, which is atyled Sushumnd and also Sambhi-nddi. This is attributed to the influence of Mahddeva.

’ Experts in this science distinguish the excess or even breathings by placing the thumb beneath the nostril. Two and a half gharis is the time usually allotted to the two former kinds. The third occupies the time taken to pronounce a long vowel ( guru), that is, a prolated vowel, asin md, thirty-six times, From the first 4ifhi called pariwé* to the third ¢ithi, the order of breathing is the Chandra-nddi, followed by the Strya- nddi for the same period, and, so on, alternately, to the end of the month. Some authorities regulate the order by weeks, allotting Sunday, Tuesday, Thursday and Saturday to the Surya-nddi, and Monday, Wednesday and Friday to the Chandra-nddi: others, according to the sun’s course through the Zodiacal signs, beginning with Aries for the Sdurya-nédi breathings, Taurus for Chandra-nadi, and so alternately through the signs to the close of the year, Others again take the retardation of the moon in the Zodiacal signs inthe same manner. All are however agreed that irregu- larity in the prescribed order is productive of temporal misfortune. If the intermission continue for two or three days, quarrels will ensue ; if for ten days, a misfortune will befall the wife; if for fifteen days, a severe illness will disturb the happiness of the house. Should it “Yast for a month, the brother will die. If the Strya-nddi breathings are in excess for one day and night, the man will die after the expira- tion of a year. If this anomaly continues for two and three days at a time, he will live a year for every day after the close of the year, accord- ing to the number of days. But if itcontinue for one month, he will die in @ month. If the excess of the Chandra-nddi be a day and night, the man will fall ill after the expiration of the year, and in the same way, accord- ing to the number of days, after the close of the year, his sickness will continue. If the irregularity last for one month continuously, he will be ruined in estate. If the excess of Sushumnd continues for ten days, the man will die at the entry of the sun into Aries, If Chandra-nddi last this

L Abul Fazl transliterates Chandr-ndri 8 A lunar day, or the thirtieth part of and Sarij-ndri, as in Hindi, Néri, or a whole Innation, the first of which ia Properly, Nédi, signifies in Sanskrit any called pariwd, See Vol. I, p. 17. tubular organ of the body, vein, &c.

30

234 SVARA.

period, perturbation of mind and sickness will ensue. If Chandra-nddi continues in operation throughout sixteon days after the entry of the Sun into Aries, symptoms of sickness will supervene. When the San is id Scorpio, if Chandra-nddi continues in operation for two or five days, the yan will die in eighteen years, but if the Sun be in Virgo, in fifteen years. All are agreed that if at sun-rise, either Stirya-nddi or Chandra-nddi be operative, and the reverse of either at its setting, good fortune will result, otherwise a calamity will ensue, and if the Chandra-nddi breathing be reversed in four gharis, it is a sign of the occurrence of fortunate events.

According to the varied conditions of hours, days, Zodiacal signs, planetary movements, and manner of breathing in the three ways, divers events attended with joy or sorrow and other circumstances may be pre- dicted. The Sérya-nddi and Chandra-nddi are each five-fold, and each division is named after one of the five elements. In two gharis and a half, twenty pals are allotted to air; thirty pals to fire; forty pals to water; fifty pals to earth; and ten to ether.! Some however give five pals to ether, ten to air, fifteen to fire, twenty to water, and twenty-five to earth, which are altogether equal to a ghart and a quarter. When this revolu- tion is completed, the recurring series begins with earth, followed by water, fire, air and ether. Some suppose one ghart to be allotted severally to the elements of earth, water, fire, air and ether, and each element is distin- guished by the manner of the breathing. If it rise upwards, it apper- tains to the element of fire; if laterally and not beyoud the measure of four fingers’ breadth, to that of air; if it descend, to that of water, its motion being sensible at a distance of twelve fingers. If the impulse be on a level with the nostril, neither upwards nor downwards, nor high nor low, and extending to a distance of eight fingers, it belongs to ether.

In what relates to the particular conditions affecting human actions, this science also furnishes information. Repose betokens the elemental infinence of earth; love of sensual pleasures and interior coldness signifies that of water; anger and the conditions that dispose the good inclinations of men to evil are the result of the fiery influence; and that of ether pro- duces states of divine contemplation, and the emptying of the interior soul of extraneous affections,

They also erect a gnomon on a level surface of ground, and take the extent of its shadow according to determinate finger-measures, counting the length of one finger for Sunday, two for Monday, and so on, up to seven fingers for Saturday. To this they add twelve more and divide the whole

4 Two and a half gharis=60 minutes, and a pal is equal to 24 seconds,

. SVARA. 935

into five parts. If no digit-index is left, it is ascrihed to ether; if one, to air; if two, to fire; if three, to water; and if four, to earth.

Another practice is to ingert the two thumbs in the orifices of the ears, and to close the mouth with the little and fourth fingers of each hand, while the middle fingers press each nostril, and the corners of the eyes are drawn down by the fore-fingers, and the glance is directed between the brows. A spherule then becomes visible. If it have a quadrangniar shape, and as if liquescent, it appertains to the element of earth; if it be the shape of a half-moon, and inoline ta white and appear hard and cold, it is of water ; if if be round, bright, hard and black, and variously spotted, it is thought to belong to the element of air; if triangular and luminous, to that of fire, and if na spherule pe visible, it is the effect of ether.

Imparting instruction, donations, visiting religious teachers and guides, repairing to the presence of idols, entering a city or house, and other parti- Culars of moyement and change of place, and (according to one opinion), undertaking 9 journey into a foreign country (and in accordance with Seneral custom), buying and selling, the antidotes to various poisons, the repelling of ominons stellar influences, conditions of friendship, culling medi- Cinal plants and herbs in the woods, operations in alchemy, works relating to Yoga and other duties of the same gracious character, are believed to be most salutary during the Chandra-nddi period; while entering the Presence of kings, and undertaking war are best during the Surya-nddi. In the Chandra-nddi times, in ‘battle, the enemy should be engaged from the left; during the Surya-nddi, from the right. Bodily safety is gene- rally ascribed as dependent on the particular side of the breathing. The conquest of a province and (according to one opinion) travelling in one’s own country, eating, sexual intercourse, bathing, imprisonment, with- drawing from any work, obstructing another’s affections, and the like inauspicious actions, are suitable to the Sérya-nddi, Inthe Sushumndé pe- tiod, no work js undertaken.

All works of an auspicious nature are undertaken under the influ- ence of the elements of water and earth, while those that are to be dura- ble are chosen with reference to the elements of fire and air. No good work is ascribable to ether. When proceeding to any place, that foot is first lifted on whichever side the breathing is greatest, and if a person meets a superior to whom reverence is due, or from whom he expects to receive a favour, he takes care in his movements to keep that personage on the side on which he himself breathes ;! but an evil-disposed person, or @ creditor, and the like, should be kept on the non-respiratory side. They

1 Tho 49 after 5,5 ,9 in this sentence is an error and should be omitted.

236 SVARA,

also say that upper and forward situations are dominated by Chandra-nddi, and those inferior and behind, by Sirya-nddi, and in both cases the parties must continue in their several positions till the action is concluded.

Answers to inquirers.

Should any one inquire whether a child about to be born, will be a boy or @ girl, the person questioned must ascertain from which of his own nostrils the breathing is greater. If the questioner be on that side, he will gladden him with the news of a son; if not, he will reply that it will be agirl. If he breathes equally through both nostrils, there will be twins, If it should so happen that during the inquiry, he should breathe through one nostril more than another, he will predict the extinction of that life. Another opinion is that if the questioner stand on the Chandra-nddi side, it will be a girl; if on the Suirya-nddi, a boy, and if the breathing be of the kind Gushwmnd, an hermaphro- dite. Some say that the times referrible to the elements of earth and water, indicate a boy, and those of fire and air, a girl, and ether implies death. If the inquiries relate to matters concerning study, tuition, marriage, menial service or its employment, attendance on the great, and buying and selling, the element of water prognosticates speedy success; that of earth, more tardy ; of air, the success will be small; of fire, gain followed by loss. Ether shows no beneftt, If the inquiry be regarding rain, the elements of earth and water indicate that rain will fall, but in the latter there is greater evidence of a plentiful supply to the crops. The element of air predicts clouds without rain; and fire, gentle showers. Regarding questions as to crops, water and earth show that they will yield the revenue, and in the latter case a full harvest; air indicates ® moderate crop, and fire that it will be burnt up. No evidence of result is shown by ether. Should the inquiry be relative to sickness, and if the period be Chandra-nddi, and the questioner be on the Siirya-nddi side, or vice versa, the sick person will die, but if he stand on the Chandra-nédi side, the patient will quickly recover. Should the question be made on the Strya- nadz side, the illness will be protracted, but recovery will follow. Others look to the manner of the breathing. If the question be put during an inspiration which is called living breath, it is a sign of life; but if during an expiration, which is styled lifeless breath, the patient will die; in all inquiries this rule is regarded. A man bitten by a snake or under demoniacal possession, or mauled by a hyena! is accounted among sick persons.

1 That is, a mad hysna, which only in that state is supposed to attack a man,

SAKUNA, 237

Should the question be regarding invasion by @ foreign force: if the period be Chandra-nddi, and the questioner stand on that side, it indicates an affirmative; if he stand on the Strya-ndédi side, a negative. Others say that if the times appertain to the elements of earth and water, no invasion will occur, but those of fire and air denote an advance. Ether gives no response. If the inquiries be concerning war and peace, Chandra-nédi implies the latter, and Surya-nédi the former. Some main- tain that the earth-periods predict a severe engagement and that many will be wounded, while fire, air and ether point to losses on both sides. Water Signifies a peace. Ifthe question relate to the issue between the querist and his enemy, earth implies war, and that many will fall; fire predicts victory to the questioner ; air defeat, and ether his death in the engagement ; water indicates a coming peace. If information be sought regarding the result of hostilities between defenders of a country and foreign troops, Chandra-nddi denotes victory to the former, and Sirya-nddi to the latter. Some are of opinion that if the questioner stand on the left, and the period be Chandra-nddi, if the letters of the name of the questioner be even, he will be successful: if he stand on the right, and it be Stdrya-nddi, and the humber of the letters be odd, victory will rest with the latter. If both names have an equal number of letters, and the questioner be on the side of the breathing nostril, the former will have the advantage; if on the side of the non-breathing nostril, the latter.

If information is asked, regarding a person absent, the water-periods indicate his speedy arrival; earth; that he is settled where he is; air, that he has emigrated to another country, and fire implies his death. Ether reveals nothing. If the thoughts of the questioner refer to any subject of the animal, vegetable and mineral kingdoms, earth-periods imply the vegetable; water and air, the animal, and fire, the inorganic and mineral ;

• the ether-periods point to the absence of these thoughts from the mind of

the questioner. Such is this strange account, of which let the foregoing suffice :— ° AGAMA is a doctrinal treatise on incantations relative to thiogs that will pro- duce advantage or repel hurt, increase knowledge and remedy disenses, augment wealth, destroy enemies, cement friendship, secure conquest and advance good government, and the like.

Sakuna or augury,! is the extraordinary art of predicting events from the motions .

1 The word signifies a bird in general, dered, kite, valture, and sometimes a and has no precise application to any hen-sparrow, Partioular kind, though it is loosely ren-

238 GARUDA.

of bitds. Their song, their sileuce, their movements and repose, and indications of pleasure and sadness, and similar signs, discover the. present and the fature. There are many in this country who are skilled in this important science. One day, in a royal preserve, two madinds’ sat perched side by side chirping low together. His Majesty deigned to inquire the subject of their converse from an expert in this divination, who replied that were he to reveal their confidence to his Majesty, he would not be believed. The male desired to pair while the female excused herself. 1b was not improbable that if the nest were searched stains of blood would be found. On examination being made, his words were fonnd to be true. The sooth-sayers of Hindustan foretell future events chiefly by means of five methods, the stars, breathing from the nostrils, augury, incantations, and kevala®, which is divination by the throwing of dice, and it comprises various other kinds of prognostication. Sduuprica

or Palmistry, predicts events from observation of the character of the members of the body and their movements, and from lines and marks, and the results are generally accurate.

Gdrupa 8 is a science treating of snakes, scorpions, and other venomous reptiles, the effects of whose injuries it averts. By reciting incantations and repeating the genealogical descent (of the person affected) and praising. his ancestry, the animal is made to appear. An extraordinary circumstance is the following :—They take an old snake of a particular kind, and after certain

1 Aeridotheres tristis. The word is sdr im the Persian, a starling. The Sturnus vulgaris, or Common atarling, is the teliyd maind.

& This word in the Pitaiijala system signifies the isolation of the soul from

herited from his mother, who had quar- relied with her co-wife Kadru, the mo- ther of serpents. He is represented as having the head, wings, and talons of au eagle, and the body and limbs of a man, and has many names und epithets. Ac-

the bondage of all worldly ties (Kaiva- lya). With the Jainae, Kevale signifies the pure unalloyed knowledge such as ascetics seek hy penance ‘The definition of Abul Faz] I can nowhere discover.

8 This is the name of the 17th Purdéna relating to the birth of Gérnda, the my- thical bird or vulture, half-man, half- bird, on which Vishnuvides. He is the

“king of birds, descended from Kabyapa and Vinaté, a daughter of Daksha, and a great enemy of serpents; a hatred in-

cording to the Mahfbhérata, his parents gave him liberty to dovour wicked men, bot he was recommended not to touch oa Braéhmanz. Curiosity, or hunger, how- ever, once prevailed, and he is said to have swallowed a Brihman and his wife together ; but his throat was so burnt in the act that he was giad to disgorge them. It is probably this ciroumatance which gave rise to the practicy men- tioned by Abul Fazl.

SkWITVA. 239

incantations they make it bite a Brahman. When the poison works, the man becomes senseless, in which state he answers any questions put to him, and these prove correct. The Hindu sages believe that during the Kali cycle, nothing can be more true than these revelations of the unknown, and several works containing these answers are still extant.

Inpra-3dba is the art of sorcery, of magical spells, and sleight of hand. The wonders performed by these means are beyond the power of expression.

Rasa-vipy£ or Alchemy, is the science of the fusing of mercury (rasa), gold, silver, copper, and the like. Itis by this art that the elixir, or philosopher’s stone,

is produced.

Ratwatbarixsuf is the art of testing jewels and precious stones of various kinds, and treats of their production, properties, value, and kindred subjects. ; Kéna-shsTra : _ treats of the generation of the human race.

‘ Séurrya or rhetorical composition, is a science comprising various kinds of knowledge. It sets forth the shades of signification in words, appropriateness of expres-

gion, and solecisms of language.

They hold the Supreme Being to be its

author. The meaning underlying a word is said to be four-fold :—(1). S’akti ( power of a word), is denotation and its conventional relation to the

thing designated. (2).

1 This term is thus explained in the Sdhitya Darpana, by ViSvanétha Kavirdja, to which work Abul Fazl is apparently indebted for his information. ‘The power by which in sach an oxpression as “the impetnous Kalinga,” a word suok as * Kalinga,” incompatible with the epi- thet ‘impetnors,’ if taken in its own sense of a particnlar country on the Coromandel const, causes one to think not of the country, but the men connected therewith …. this power communica- ted to it, other than that which belongs to it naturally, is called Indication. Of this element in the drama there are 6 kinds. The treatise classes a word ac- Cording to the three-fold accident of its function, as Expressive, Indicative and

Lakshand (indication),! communicates the applied

Saggestive. The expressed meaning is termed Vdchya, conveyed to the under- standing by -the-word’s denotation (abhi. dha, literally, power.or sense of a word) as a ‘cow,’ or ‘horse;’ the meaning indicated is held to be conveyed by the word’s indi- cation, lakshand, as above explained: the meaning suggested (vyangys), is con- veyed by the word’s Suggestion (uyai- jand). ‘‘Indication” hag a farther eight-fold subdivision, into pure (suddha), and qnalitative (gaunza), which latter Abul Fazl olasses separately, though acknowledging, later on, its inclusion by some suthors under the second head. vw. p. 16 and ff, of Pramada Disa Mitra’s tranglation of the above treatise.

240 SSHITYA,

meaning desired. (3). Gavna, (qualitative), illustrates figuratively the thing compared. (4). Vyanjaid (suggestion), is to say one thing and mean another which has no sppavent application. As, for example, o woman sent her majid-servant with a message to call her husband who, when she entered his private apartment, used criminal familiarity with her and sent an excuse by her for his not returning. When she took back the message, from the pallor of her face and the obliteration of her marks of sandal-wood and collyriuam, and of the colour (from her lips), the wife understood what had really oceurred. Though much pained, she showed no signs of it in her speech, bué said,—‘ You are speaking an untruth; you never went to fetch bim, but you went to the banks of the stream and bathed, for the collyrium is no longer round your eyes nor the sandal-wood unguent on your person.” By this delicate irony she discovered her knowledge of what had taken place, and her own distress of mind.!

Some consider the figurative sense (gauna), to belong to the second head, and they describe with peculiar force and elaborate detail all that makes for literary ornament and grace of expression. It is held to be the highest form of dramatic poetry, of rhetorical art, and metrical composi- tion.? This science also comprises the Navarasa,? or the nine sentiments, which inspire universal interest. The first is S’pingdéra-rasa (the erotic passion ), that is, the mutual affection of men and women, and all that relates to their union and separation. Secondly, Hésya-rasa, mirth of various kinds. This is produced, they say, by variations in person, speech, action and dress. It is three-fold:—l. Smita, (smile), a slight alteration in the cheek, eye and Jip. (2). Vihasita (gentle laugh), in which the mouth is alittleopen. (3). Apahkasita, langhter accompanied by sound of the voice.*

1 This identical oxample occurs in the literates. He also gives the following

Séhitya Darpana.

8 This refers to Chapters IV and V. on what is called “Suggestive poetry,” which is regarded as its chief beauty. Tho Sanskrit term for this figurative style is Dhvani, ond it is said by the author of the work of this name,

• Like a beautifal woman with a single member ornamented, the sentence of agood poet shines with ‘Suggestion’ dis- played by a single word.”—Sahitya Darpana, p. 150.

8 Nauras in Hindi, as Abal Kazi trans-

Hindi transliterations differing from the Sanskrit forms, Singér-rasa, Hédsi-rasa. Por Bibhatsa, he writes bibhichha. Rasa signifies ‘flavour’, from’the verb ras, to taste or relish, and implies the emotions which give a zest to the representations of character. S’ringara is from Syringa, a horn, and means the badding of love. 8. D., p. 111.

4 A fourth division is mentioned in the S. D., viz., Atihasiéa, convulsion of laugh- ter, where the limbs loge all control.

sSulrya, 241

Thirdly, Karuna-rasa, pity or regret, a3 at the loss of a friend or pro- perty. Fourthly, Raudra, anger. Fifthly, Vira (heroism), the admira- tion produced by acts of munificence, clemency and valour. Sixthly Bhaydaaka, terror. Seventhly, Bzbhatsa, aversion. Eighthly, Adbhuta, wonder, as at the sight of any (extraordinary) object. Ninthly, Sdnta (quietism), the tranquillity that comes of knowledge and the indifference which regards friend and foe as alike. Of these they make various sub-divisions and illustrate them by delightful examples.!

1 The relations between the sexes are also considered in this branch of knowledge, and the passion of love amply discussed. In Irén“and Turan, this affection chiefly subsists between men; in Hindustanjand Hijéz, be- tween men and women. Devotion to the female sex is the character- istic of the Arab, while the native of ._IIndia includes both sexes alike in his - regard. : ;

The Hindus term a heroine (in dramatic poetry), ndyika, and three kinds are named. (1). Svtydé, (own wife), a virtuous woman devoted to her husband : from modesty she looks neither to the right hand nor to the left, but only from the corner of her eyes so that her glance is rarely seen: her laugh does not pass beyond her lips and her teeth are not dis- closed: she speaks seldom and never loudly: she rarely loses her tem- per, and if she be provoked to anger, it is restrained within her heart and does not appear in her eyes or manner. (2). Parakiydé, (belonging to another), is one who clandestinely carries on an intrigue with other than her husband. Ifa married woman she is called Praudha; a maiden, Kan- yaké. Other classifications of this kind are carried to an indefinite extent.? Sdmdnyé (courtesan), is the property of none, and is concerned only in making money.

Sviyé is classed under three heads :—(1). Mugdha, (artless), one who from her childish age and inexperience goes 8 out-of-doors, and in whom youth

1 A tenth is sometimes added, vdtsalya, Paternal fondness; but according to others there arq only eight rasas, the last two being omitted. These affections

are supposed to lend to dramatic com-:

position its relish and interest, and ex- amples are culled from works that illus- trate their force and beauty, aa for instance, Bhava-bhiti’s drama of the Véra-charita exemplifies the rasa of heroiem, the Mahdbhérata that of quie- tism or tranquillity, &0. These various sentiments are discussed and evidenced

31

by instances from dramatic poetry, in the Saéhitya-darpana.

8 The Sahitya Darpana gives 884 kinds, and allades to other divisions too nu- merous to mention.

8 This appears to be an error. The Séhitya Darpana says that she ‘ never goes out of the inner apartments, no longer laughs unconstrainedly, but prac- tises every moment some bashful res- traint. Little she speaks,” &c. Verses, taken from the marriage of Prabhdvati by the anthor.

242 SSHETYA,

begins to grow headstrong, and who may be to some extent conscious of her beauty or otherwise, and shrinks from the embraces of her husband. When she retires to sleep, she regards him furtively and pretends to slumber lest he should enter into conversation but from fear of him sleeps not. The age of snch a one ranges from eight to twelve and at times to thirteen. (2). Madhyd (middling or adolescent) is one in whom modesty and love for her husband are combined in an equal degree. She may speak in anger but never thus to her husband. Her age does not exceed thirty-two. (38). Pragalbhd (bold or mature) makes her love and address pleasing to her husband and captivates him by her experienced arts. The age of this kind extends to fifty-two years.

The last two are further subdivided into three classes. (1). Dhiré (constant). If her husband pay attention to another woman, though fired by jealousy, she becomes more assiduous in her devotion and service and by this means makes him ashamed of his conduct. (2). Adhird (capricious). Such 2 one takes no notice of his infidelity and halds her peace, but she will address him cheerfully so as to cover him with confusion and say :— “Té is strange that while you are wakeful, my eyes glance love and while you are drank with wine, my heart is in agitation.” (3). Dhird Adhird, is one who unites both these dispositions and sighs to show that she understands. Some add a conversation after the manner above indicated.!

Sviyd is also of two kinds. (1). Jyeshthé (pre-eminent, eldest), is one who is preferred by her husband above all women. (2). Kanisthd (inferior, youngest) is one for whom her husband’s affection is less strong.

Parakiyd is of five kinds. (1). Gupta (guarded) covers her conduct, and skilfully conceals her past indiscretions and her future designs, feign- ing plausible excuses. If for instance she has been scratched by her lover’s nail, she will say “I cannot sleep in this room :—a cat chases a mouse, and in the scramble gives me this scratch.” (2). Vidagdhd (adroit or artful). By her persuasive speech she acquires influence and her winning manners secure it. (3). LDakshité (notorious), shows her affection openly and withont fear. (4). Kulaté (unchaste), has many lovers and retains the affections of each without pecuniary considerations. (5): Anusaydnd (regretting), is one who from timidity does not keep her assignation and is fearful lest her lover come and not find her.

They also class women under eight heads:—(1). Proshita-bhartrikd is one whose husband is abroad, and she is distressed at his absence from her, or he is on the point of setting out and she is disquieted by her fears.

1 Thig sentence is, I think, connected ed, and should not bogin a new para- with the one preceding, as I have ronder- graph os in tho toxt. ;

sdHITYA. 235

Other opinions subdivide this, making nine classes. (2). Khanditd is one who is disconsolate at being betrayed by her husband or lover. (3). Kalahdutarité is one who has quarrelled with her lover and is penitent and wishes to appease him. (4). Vipra-labdhé goes to an as- signation but is disappointed at not finding her lover. (5), Uthd} is discon- solate at her lover’s not coming, and seeks the cause thereof. (6). Vésaka- -sajjaé is joyful at the coming of her lover, and is dressed in her ornaments to receive him. (7). Svddhina-patiké, (independent—having her own way), is a woman whose lover is obedient to her wishes. (8). Abhisdrikd, is one who invites her lover, or herself goes to him.

Another classification of women is of three kinds:—(1). Uitamd (best), is one who is in love with her husband though he show her no affection. (2). Adhamé (worst), opposite of the above. (8). Mladhy- -amd (intermediate), is sometimes united in harmony and affection with her husband and at times is unfriendly ‘and estranged.

A further division is four-fold:—(1). Padminz, is incomparable for her beauty and good disposition, and is tall of stature. Her limbs are perfectly proportioned; her voice soft, her speech gracious though re- served, and her breath fragrant as the rose. She is chaste and obedient to her husband. (2). Ohitrint, is somewhat inferior to the former; is neither stout nor thin, has a slender waist and a full bust. (3). S’an- khing, is fat and short, constantly quarrelling with her husband and has & violent temper. (4). Hastini, is repulsive in appearance and manners.

All these are treated at length, with the particular classes of men that are suited to each. Aldna signifies indignation in a woman at mis- Conduct on the part of her husband. Jt is of four kinds:—(1). Laghu, (trifling), when she gives herself airs at the least caress or endearment of, her husband or lover. (2). Madhya (middling), is when she is estranged by some slight provocation. (3). Guru (weighty), when after much fond? entreaty on his part, sho lays aside her wayward humour. (4). Rasdbhasa (simulated sentiment), is when she refuses reconciliation.

The lover or hero (in a drama) is called Ndyaka. These also aro named suitably to the heroines, but are restricted to three:—(1). Pati (lord or husband), chooses in wedlock only a Hindu woman. (2). Upu.- patt,® (porxds). (3). Vaishayika, a sensualist.

Each of these is subdivided into four kinds:—(1). Anukiéla, (faith- ful), is attached to one woman only. (2). Dakshina (impartial), pays his

1 Utkanthitd ia the more correct term STread wus? for wie”. in tho heroic drama for a woman who 8 Abul Fazl translitorates Upati, and longs aftor her absent lover or husband, for Dhrishta, Dhishta,

244 : skiTYA.

addresges to many, and adroitly secures the favours of all. (3). Dhrishéa, (cool or impudent), is one whom the heroine in her indignation repels while he caresses and flatters her the more. (4). Satha, (perfidions), by cunning and simulating affection wing her heart (though attached to another.)!

In the treatment of love-episodes, the greatest art is shown in the situations of the hero and heroine and the dramas abound with the most felicitous passages. . ;

Sakhi is the term for the usual female confidante on whose faithful service the heroine relies. Her advice and devotion are of the greatest comfort. She jests and amuses her mistress and never fails her in the time of need. She arranges her ornaments and assists in tiring her. By her persuasive representations she removes the misunderstandings between hus- band and wife and effects a reconciliation. She is ever ready with her counsel and good offices, and is entrusted with messages. Such a female is called duti ; if a man, dita, She is conversant with all the mysteries of union and separation and is an expert in matters connected with love and rivalry.

In this art the manners and bearing of the hero and the heroine ® are . set-forth with much variety of exposition, and illustrated by delightful examples. The works on this subject should be consulted by those who ‘are interested in its study.

1 These four divisions are subdivided into sixteen. The cool or impudent

the fair-browed one, shedding toarsa, from her then being anable to do anything,

lover is thus amusingly exemplified in the Séhitya Darpana ‘ Perceiving her countenance crimson with passion, I went near intending to kiss her. She spurned me with her foot; bat having humbly caught hold of it, I burst out laughing. O my friend, the anger of

prolongs, whenever thought of, the am- usement of my mind,” p. 59.

8 Their characteristics are described with considerable detail.and much un- conscious hamour in the Sdhitiyd-dar- pana, p. 56 and ff, Mitra’s translation.

SANGILA. 245

Sancita

is the art of singing, accompanied by music and daucing. The subject is treated in seven chapters (adhydyas). Tae First is Svarddhydya, on musical tone which is of two kinds. (1). Andhata, sound produced without cause (7, ¢., otherwise than by per- cussion). This is considered to be one and eternal. If a man close both orifices of his ears with his fingers, he will be conscious of a resonance, and this is signified by the above term. They believe this to proceed from Brahma, and when the consciousness of it becomes habitual and it is heard without mediate aid, final liberation (mukit) is then attained. (2). hata, sound produced by a cause, which, like speech, is accounted a quality of air and is produced by percussion and protrusion. They say that in each of the three locations of the abdomen, the throat, and the head, twenty-two fibres or chords have been divinely created. The primary movement of air is from the navel, and the volume of sound produced depends upon

the strength or softness of the initial force exerted.!

1 The doctrine of the vital airs has already preceded in the accoant of the schools of Hindu philosophy. The abdo- men is snpposed to be the seat of the fire which keeps up tho heat of the body, and this fire is surroundod and retained in place by the airs called Samdna, In the Patafijala system, by the subdual of this air, the perfected Yogin appears iMlamined by the radiance of the flame Which then escapes from the body. The samo internal heat plays an impor- tant part in the production of the voice. According to Rajah Sir Sourindro Mohun Tagore, in his pamphlet,“‘fhe Twenty-two Musical Sratis of the Hindus,” whon the animal soul wishes to speak, the mind acts on the abdominal fire which mixes with tho vital air pervading the liga- ment known ag Brahma Granthi, below the navel. This vital air thus expands, Causing in tho navel the ati sikshma ndda, or the very minate sound; in tho chest, the stikshma or the minute; in the throat, the pushta, or the developed ; in the head, the apushta, or suppressed ;

32

and in the mouth, the kritrima, or arti- ficial. Connected with or based upon these chords, are the twenty-two frutis, or particles of sound sensible to the ear, which are‘essential to the formation of the Hindu Saptaka, or heptachord. The voico is distinguished according to its Grdmasthdna or the appropriate organs concerned in its modulation, as mandra, madhya, and tdra. The first is supposed to proceed from the clest, the second from the throat, and the third, or tdra, from the head, varying in quality and pitch according to its place of origin: the throat-voice vi- brating twice as rapidly as the chost- voice, and so on. In each of these places thero are twenty-two Srutis, and as the compass of the voice is limited to within three octaves, the frutis of the lowest are said to belong to the mandra-sthdna, or mandra octave, those of the middle to the madhya, and those of the highest to the tdra, Thus, the Hindu Saptaka, is divided into 22 in- tervals, or Srufis mathematically equal

246 SANGITA.

a They consider that the fifth, sixth, eighteenth and nineteenth chords

or unequal accordingly as the scales are harmonical or of equal temperament ; in the former case, the series rises by geometrical progression, four srutis being allotted to the major tones, three to the minor, and two to the semi-tones, indi- cating that a semi-tone is half a major tone, and the minor three quarters of the major tone, or one and a half times the semi-tone. Its serial progression obvi- ously resembles to a great extent the enharmonic genus of the Greeks. That the grutis are capable of exact musical expression, has been denied by Mr. C. D. Clarke in his well-known article in the Galcutia Review (No. CXVI. of 1874) in which he complains of the want of a precise definition of the term and of the vibration number of the intervals. He shows that the intervais between CG and D and A and B, measured by the ratio of their vibration namber, are harmonically the same, viz., as 1 to &, while the interval between’G and Aisa little legs, viz.,1 to ¥P; and taking the tone from C to D as 4 frutis, from G to A as 8, and A to B us 2, he aska,— What is a Sruti ?–His error lies in starting with the s@ as O instend of as D, because by tak- ing the former as the tonic of the Shavja grdma. he turns s minor into a major in- terval and a semi-tone into a minor, it being of importance to remember that the notes of the Hindu Skarja scale when being tormed of four or other namber of frutis, ropresent the intervals from their immediate lower notes and not the high- er. The neglect of this condition has been the capital source of all the mis- takes made in regard to the scales and the modes. Therefore the interval be- twoen G and A which he rightly says is a little Jess than between C and D, according to Western computation, is not so in the Sanskrit Sharja scale,

‘but only in the Madhyama which latter tallies almost exactly with the fing- lish scale, assuming of coarse that D and net C is the note corresponding to se. The Madhydéma-grdma differs from the Sharja in the noto pa only which is one fruti lower in ,the. for- mev than in the latter. Gandhdra- grdma has ga and xi of four Srutis, ma, pa, dha, sa, three Srutis and ri of two. This was rarely or never employed. Sir S. M. Tagore maintains that the per- fect modulation of these delicate intervals is neither impracticable nor difficult, and is constantly performed by practised singers. he point can be decided, not by the mathematician, bat by a fine ear trained to this modulation. A nomen- clature of [indn technical terms, in the language of Western Music, is still 2 de- sideratum. It is strange that, though the érutis form the basis of Hinda Music, Abal Fazil does not mention the term nor allude to them except by implication as vocal chords in the human frame. The Srutis are personified as Nymphs, and have each their name, though yary- ing in different writers. The 21 mir- chhands, which also play an important part in Hinda Music, are omitted by Abul Fazl. They have been confoanded with the frutis even by native musi- cians and were not correctly understood by Sir W. Jones. Mr. Patterson’s errone- ons view of them is their use to the learner, teaching him to rise and descend by tones and semi-tones and grenter intervals. Captain Day (‘Music of Southern In- dia ’’) states at p. 23, that it is doabtful what these mtrchhands signified, and at p. 39, he defines them incorrectly. Ac- cording to the Sangtta Ratnakdra, (Ed. Vedantavigisa and Sfradé Prasida Ghé- sha, p. 61) the seven different orders in the succession of intervals in each of

SANGITA. 247

iy

are mute and the remaining eighteen are classed under the seven primary notes in the following order :—

(1). Shadja,! is taken from the note of the peacock fand extends to the fourth chord). (2). &tshabha, is taken from the note of the Papiha (Coccystes Melanoleucos), and beginning after the fourth chord (omitting the fifth and sixth), extends from the seventh to the tenth. (3). Géu- dhéra, is from the bleating of a he-goat and its compass extends from the ninth to the thirteenth, (4). Madhyama, resembles the cry of the Coolen Crane*® (Ardea Stbirica), and its compass is from the thirteenth to the sixteenth. (5). Panchama, is taken from the note of the o’il (Cuculus Indicus), and is attuned on the seventeenth. (6). Dhaicata, is like the croak of the frog, and its compass extends from the twentieth® to the

the three scales or grdmas, caused by teking each note seriatim as the fun- damental, in the ascending and des- cending seriss, were known as mirch- hands. Seven necessarily are formed in each scale and they are 2] in all. The first miérchhand of the Sharja scale begins from sa of the middle heptachord the second from nt, and soon. The first of the madhyama scale begins from ma, (the initial indicative of the name, and the characteristic note) the second from ga, &&. The first of the Gdéndhdra be- gins similarly from ga, the second from riand soon. They are therefore simply such changes of scale as would be ana- logous to our dintonic series taken auc- Cessively first from C, then D, E, F, &e. This is called Suddha, simple or unmixed, and omitting the Gdudhdra Scale as little,or never used, there are 7 mérckhands in each of the two lower 8cales or 14in both. By the introduction of a modification or Mtkriti-svara in the ni, the ga, and both nt and ga simultane- ously, called respectively kdkald, tdra and santdra kdkalt, three different sels or modifications of scale were fur- nished, each capable, like the simple form, of 14 expressions, making 56 mitr- chhands in ail. not the rdgas may be said to cocrespond

ban-

These Airchhanis and

)

wv to the Greek modes of tho fHolian, Lydian, Tonic, Doric or Phrygian, so named accerding to the character of the sentiments they inspired. The effect of the different mirchhands when played on the sitdra, is very striking.

1 Pronounced Sharja. It means liter- ally six-born ; t. e., the fundamertal from which the other six notes arise.

& According to the Sangfta Darpana the note is that of the Hrauicha, or heron (Ardea Jaculator).

8 The text has eight, which mast be an error of pe for pied. The seven

notes of the scale are represented by’ tho seven initial syllables of their names, after the manner of Guido’s notation, thus: Sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, corre- sponding to our,—

DE PF. G& «(A OB OG,

and the &’rutis are allotted to the several notes, as follows: to Sa, ma and pa, four; to rt and dha, three; to ga and ni, two. The authority for Abal Fazl’s division of tho vocal chords among the notes of the octave I have not been able to trace. It appenrs to be taken from the idea of the divi- sion of the 22 strings. After dividing the heptachord into 22 parts, the anoi- onts fixed the 7 notes in different plaves

248 : SANGITA.

twenty-second. (7). Nishéda is taken from the sound of the elephant! and its compass is from the twenty-second to the third of the nexé series (of twenty-two). Each heptachord occurs successively in each series, and in the third, Nishdda, cannot, of course, go beyond the twenty-second chord.

A system of intervals in which the whole seven notes of the gamat are employed, is termed Sampirua. If there be only six, the fundamental must be one of them, and it is styled Shddava ; if five, Audava, the funda- mental being of necessity one of them. None has fewer than these, but the tdna which is a separate intonation may consist of two. ?

Tux second is Rdga-vivekddhydya, on divers musical compositions and

their variations.’

to construct the scales. Assuming the sound of the 4th string for sa, those of the 7th, 9th, 13th, 17th, 20th and 22nd were assigned to the remaining 6 notes and thus their principal or Sharja-grdma scale was formed.

2 The Sangtta Darpana describes the sonnd as that made by the elephant when goaded by its mahout. These notes of birds and animals as they are termed, really signify the compass of their several calls and thus represent the number of érutis of the scale-notes of which they become the equivalents.

2 By tho term naghma which I have rendered system of intervals, a murchha- né mast be meant. Each mirchhand is snid to be sampirna, or complete, when all seven notes are employed, and asam- pirna when defective. When wanting

one it is called Shédava (81%) and

wanting two Andava (“1S4). In the

mirchhands of Sharja, sa, ri, pa, nt, and in those of Madhyama, sa, ri, ga used to be omitted one at a time, to make Shidart Mtirchhands which were 49 in noamber, viz, 28 of Sharja and 21 of Madhyama. The Audavi mir- chhands of Skarja were formed by omit- ting oa, pa, or Tl, pa, or ga, ani, and were therefore 21. The omission of ri, und dha, at one time, and at another of ga and ni, formed the twelve dudurt

a a muirchhands of Madhyama. The total number of these latter is therefore 35 in the two grémas which with the 49 shddaris make S4 asamptrna mtrchhands which were called ténas by some authors. The varions combinations of the differ- ent notes in a mtrchhand, are called tdnas, each, from seven notes to ones having a separate name. The aggregate combinations of a}l these by a process of simple arithmetic show a total of 13,699.

8 soI render “makim’” and “ shubah” by which Abal Fazl signifies rdgas and rdyints. Willard and Carey dispute the usnal translation of rdga by mvude, and Sir 8. M. Tagoro confirms their dis- sent by his own; he says there is no corresponding term in English for rdga. Carey calls rdga a tune, which Willard disallows, bat himself gives nothing bet- ter. He shows that varions rdyas and rdgin’s may be played on one adjustment of frets on the sifdra, while the frets have to be shifted for others. These fret- adjustments permit only those tones to bo soanded which are proper for the mode to which the frets have beon transferred and each adjustment, called {hdé(h, or & frame-work, he would style ‘mode.’ Several rdginis, by a varied order of suc- cession, may be adapted to the same thd{h, but they must belong to it and cannot be played buat on their proper f¢hdth which determines the relutive distances of the

SANGITA. * 249

Their origin is ascribed to Mahddeva and (his wife) Parvati. The first-mentioned had five mouths,! from each of which issued a melody in the folowing order :—

(1). Sré-rdga. (2). Vasanta. (3). Bhaivava. (4). Patichama. (5). Bfegah. (6). Nata-Nardyana was produced by Pérvati. Each of these six modes is called in Sanskrit Rdga, and they aré reckoned the primary orders of sounds. Each of them has numerous variations.

The S’rt-rdga has the whole seven notes (sampitrna) of the gamut. In this, Rishadha has a compass to the eighth chord, Gdndhdéra to the tenth, MMadhyama to the thirteenth, and Dhaivata to the twenty-first: Nishdda is

allotted but- one. Aud in like manner other changes occur throughout

all the modifications.

1. Variations oF Sri-rdea:—(1). Mdlavé.

(2). Tirovani® (38).

Gauri. (4). Kedart. (5). Madhu-mddhavi. (6). Vihdri.

sounds of the heptachord, while the rdga disposes their succession and marks their principal effect. From an able article in the Cal. Rev.. CXXXVII. of 1879, by Sérada Praséda, Ghdsha, the learned co-editor of the Sangita Ratna- kéra, to which I am already indebted for the substance of this information on the murchhands and tdnag, I borrow the following explanation of the rdga. It is defined as a musical composition Consisting of not less than five notes of a Mbrcunand (mark this term) in accor- dance with certain rules with a view to a particular esthetic effect. The chief rules are that a note is assumed with which the Raga begins. This is Called graha; another with which it must invarinbly end, called nyiésa; ao third, which is the tonic or predomi- nant, repeated oftener than tho ovhers, and perhaps more noticeable also in the time, and called anga or badi: a fourth, which ig 9 or 13 érutis above or below the bdd¢, used almost as frequently and termed sambddf. A réja differs from another consisting of notes of a differ- ent mirchhand, when a bddt, sambddt or gréha, &., in the one is not the same in the other. Other distinctions and

subtleties of interchange and matila- tions of the scale produce countless va- rieties of the rdga. It will be thus seen that the rdga depends chiefly on its mirchhand which can produce only rdgas ins certain setting, the change of the mirchhand, bddt and sambddt altering the class of the rdga.

1 The Sangtta Darpana names the par- ticular mouths from which the Rdgas respectively issned. ‘hoy are repre- sented as minor deities wedded to their five Rdgints or variations, and the rest of this chapter in the above work treats ’ of them and their pictorial representa- tions symbolio of their characters and seasons. Sir W. Jones considers that the fancy of Shakspeare and the pencil of Albano might have been finely employ- ed in giving specch and form to these aérial boings. Were tiey trammelled by tho traditional types of the Sangtta Darpana, the genius of both would, in my opinion, have failed to raise them to any standard of beauty that Western ideas could appreciate or recognise.

& I take the following variants from the Sangita Darpana,—Trivand, Kedd- vd, and Pahari,

250 ° SANGITA.

2, Variation: oF Vasanta:—(1). Dest. (2). Devagiré. (3). Vairéti! (4). Todi. (5). Lalitd. (6). Hindéld,

3. Variations or Buatrava:—(1). Mfadhya-mddi®, (2). Bhairavi. (3). Bdngah. (4). Varétaka’® (5.) Sindavis (6.) Punarjreyad *

4, VartaTions of PaNcuama:—(1). VibhdsaS (2). Bhipdli. (3). Kadnaré.7 (4). Badhansiké. (5). Malasri. (6). Padhamanjari8

5. Variations oF Mecua:—(1). Maldr. (2). Soratht. (3). Asdvari3 (4), Katsuki. (5). Gdndhdrt, (6). Harsingdri.¥s

6. Variations or Nita Nardyaya:—(1). Kémodi, (2). Kalytn.* (3). Ahiré8 (4). S’uddhandta.s (5). Sdlak.’© (6). Nat-Hamira.6

Some allow only five variations to each mode and numerous other differences occur. Others in place of Vasanta, Paiichama and Megha, substitute Mdlakausika,’? Hindola and Dipaka, and make five instead of six variations to each, with a few other discrepancies of less importance. Others again, in place of the second, third, fourth and fifth modes, have Suddha-bhairava, Hindola, Desakdra and Suddha-ndja.

Songs are of two kinds. The first is called A/dérga or the lofty style as chanted by the gods and great Rishis, which is in every country the same, and held in great reveration. The masters of this style are numer- ous in the Dekhan,!8 and the six modes abovementioned with numerous

1 Vardtt. & Gurj art. 8 Reva. 4 Gunakrt. 5 This is a blunder through ignorance of . Sanskrit from which Abul Fazi’s pandits should have saved him. This list is taken from Hanumdn who gives but five Radgi- nés in the exact order of the.names in Abul Fazi and concludes the fifth in the 8. D, with the éloka FAT Hal WAG ACTA, i. ¢.,“ and (Sindavi, &c.,) are to be understood as the bonutifal wives of Bhairava.” The words. in italics have been mistaken by Abul Fazl for the vame of a Radgint.

6 Vibhasagvd.

7 Karnati.

8 Patamanjari.

9 Savért.

10 Kaugika,

ll Harsringdra.

12 Kalydnt.

138 Abhtrt.

ls Ndtikd.

15 Sdlungt.

16 Nata Humbhtrd.

17 In the 8. D. the term mdla is ex- plained as the garland of the heads of his enemies worn by this Rdga in his sym- bolic representation, His Rdyinés ara Todt, Kambhdvalt, Gaurt, Gunakrt and Kakubhd. Those of Hindola are Vela- valt, Rémakalf, Defa, Patumanjari and Lalité. Those of Dtpaka are Kedart, Kanara, Deét, Kamodt and Nataka,

18 According to Capt. Day (‘‘ The Music and Musical Instruments of Southern India,’ Chap. VIII), from early times Vapjore has been the chief seat of

¥

SANGITA. . 251

Variations of which the following are examples, are held by them to appertain to it.

(1). Surya-prakdsa. (4). Chandra-prakdééa. vartani,

The second kind is called Desi or applicable to the special locality, like the singing of the Dhkurpad in Agra, Gwalior, Bari and the adjacent country, When Man Singh! (Tonwar) ruled as Raji of Gwalior, with the assistance of Ndyak Bukshi, Maccht, and Bhanti, who were the most distinguished musicians of their day, he introduced a popular style of melody which was approved even by the most refined taste. On bis death, Bakshi and Machht passed into the service of Sultin Mahmud of Gujarat where this new style came iuto universal favour.

The Dhurpad? (Dhruva-pada) consists of four rhythmical lines with- out any definite prosodial length of words or syllables. It treats of the fas- ig

(2). Paiicha-tdlesvara. (3). Sarcato-bhadra. (5). Rdga-kadamba. (6). Jhimara. (7). Svara-

Music in Southern India, and most of the chief Karnatik musicians have either lived there or were educated in the Tanjore School.

1 Seep. 611.n. Vol. I. Thofame of the Gwalior School of Masic dates from the reign of this prince. Bakshi continued at the court of Bikramdjit, the son of Man Singh, and after his donth entered the eervice of Rfja Kirat of Kilinjar, whence he was invited to the court of Gnjarét. Blochmann, who does not state his authority, gives the name of the Gajarat prince as Snitin Bahddar who reigned from 1526 to 1536. He was Bueceeded by Sultin Mahmiid in the lntter year. The names Maccha and Bhanu have several variants in the notes to the toxt. ‘they do not appear in Blochmann’s list of musicians at p. 612. Bayley in his ‘‘ History of Gujarat,” Speaks of a minstrel called Racchu attached to Sultéin Bahadur’s conrt, who was takon before HuméyGn on the Capture of Manda in 1535. The Em- peror bad given orders for a general massacre, but being told that this musi- cian had not his equal in Hindustan, he was directed to sing and so charmed

.

the royal ear, that he was given a dress of honour and attached to the court. He subsequently fied to Sultin Bahadur who was so rejoiced at his retarn that he declared his every wish fulfilled and sorrow banished from his heart. Bayley notes that the name is variously written and that it seems to be either Bacchu or Chittt. Willard mentions the following as the most renowned of the Ndyaks or masters ; Gopal, a native of the Dekhan who flourished under Sultan Alin’ddin; his contemporary Amir Khneran of Delhi; Sultan Hosain Sharki of Jounptir ; Raja Mén Singh of Gwalior, and “ Byjoo, Bhoonoo, Pandvee, Buksoo and Lohung. The four following lived at the time of Raj&h Man of Gaaliar,— Juarjoo, Bhugwan, Dhoondhee and Daloo.” Among these names, the spelling of which I leave unaltered, Bhoonoo and Buksoo are evidently the two mentioned in the text. His list contains other names which I need not here record.

8 Willard calls the Dhurprd the heroic song of Hindustan, the aubject being frequently tho recital of the memo- rable actions of their heroes, and also treating of love and even of trifling and

252 a sanofta.

cinations of love and its wondrous effects upon the heart. ‘In the Dekhan these songs are expressed in their language by the term Chind, and consist of three or four lines, and are chiefly laudatory. In the Tilanga and Carnatic dialects they ave called Dhruva, and their subject is erotic. Those of Bengal are called Bangula, and those of Jounpir, Chutkala, while the songs of Dehli are called kaul and tardua. These last were introduced, by Amir Khusrau, of Dehli, in concert with Sémit and Tatdér, and by combining the several styles of Persia and India, form a delightful variety.’ The songs of Mathura are called Bishn-pad, (Vishnu-pada) consisting of four, six and’ eight lines, sung in honour of Vishnu. Those of Sind are styled Kami and are-amatory. Those in the dialect of Tirhié are called Lahchdri, and are the composition of Biddyd-pat, and in character highly erotic. In Lahor and the adjacent parts, they are called Chhand ; those of Gujarat, Jakri.t The war songs and heroic chants called Kurkha, they term Sddara, and these consist also of four, six, and eight lines, and are sung in various

dialects.

Besides these that have been named, there are numerous other modes,

amongst which are the following :—

Sérang; Pirbt; DhandSi; Rémkald; Kurdt, (which His Majesty has styled Sughrdz) ;3 Siha; Desakdla and Désikha.

Tue TuIRp is called Prakirnddhydya or @ chapter of miscellaneous rules and treats of Aldpa,’ which is of two kinds, (1). MRdgdlapa, the deve-

frivolous topics. Its origin he ascribes to Rajé Man Singh whom he calls the father of Dhurpad singers. He des- cribes it as having four tuks or strains: more correctly, rhythmic cadences or lines as Abul Fazl expresses it. They are severally named like the divisions of the aldpa in Sir S. M.Tagore’s “ Six Principal Ragas,” p. 89. Two of these Dhurpads are given in the Brajbihir of Nariyan Swami, one being in the Sarang mode, Specimens of others will be found in the Str Scdgur of Sar Dés, a contem- porary of Akbar. Chind in the text I suspecs to be an error for Chhand, (Sansk. Chhandas) a sacred hymn and also a musical measure; Dhruva signi- fies the introductory stanza or recurring verse of a poem or song repented as a refrain. Chutkala is a jeat or pleasantry and these songs resemble probably the

ancient Fescennine verses designed to catch the coarse and indelicate humour of the mob. The Bishun-pad according to Willard, was introduced by the blind (stir) poet and musician Sir Das. His name occurs in Blochmann’s list, p. 617; I. Of Sdmit and Tatér I find no men- tion. Some of these singers came from Mashhad, Tabriz, Kashmir, and from beyond the Oxus.

1 By Willard, ike, ‘a much more probable name, ag they are on the sub- ject of morality. This class of religious song was introduced into Hindustan by Kazi Mahmid. YV. Willard’s treatise on “The Music of Hindnstan.’’,

2 Probably to change the ominons name, Kurdé, signifying stocks for the feat, and Sughrdi, beauty or grace. *

8 Sir S. M. Tagore explains in his ‘Six Principal Ragas,” that it is a prac-

SANGITA. 253

lopment of the réga, commonly termed (in Persian) adé and tasarruf, and (2). Répéldpa: which comprises the metrical setting of the words to the air and their vocal expression,

THE Fourty, or Prabandhddhydya, is on the art of composing a rhythmic Measure (gita)! to vocal music. It consists of six members, wiz. (1). Scara, (notes as sa, ri, &e., taken at their proper pitch). (2). Viruda, panegyric, (3). Pada, name. of its object. (4). Zend, a cadence of notes on a symbolic standard, as tena, tend, and the modulation of the lines. (5). Pata, the continuous imitation of sounds (proceeding from percussion instruments) as tena, tend, mand, &c., from three letters to twenty, in a specific order as a supplementary guiding measure. (G6). Téla, rhythm expressed by beat. If,;the whole six members be present, the composition (prabandha) is called mediné ;? if one less, it is termed dnandin?; if two less, dipand; if three less, bhdvant, and if four less,

tdrdvali ; but with only two it does not (commonly) occur.

tice with singers, before commencing a song, to develop the character of the rdga by means of gamakas, and ténas. This is called aldpa in which the notes pecn- lier to the rdga are sung as a prelude to show its character. There is no fixed rule as to the time, but it should be in general keeping with the whole move- ment. Willard calls it a rhapsodical em- bellishment which after going through a variety of ad libitum passages, rejoins the melody without interfering with it, the

musical accompaniment keeping time ©

throughout,—these passages are not essential to the melody but introduced as grace notes, according to the fancy of the singer, but restricted to the charac- teristic notes of the melody and.to its time. Onaccount of tho brevity of tho melodies in general, a singer of preton- 8ions does not go through the song more than once in its simplo form, but on its re- petition, introduces these embellishments to avert monotony. ve. Capt. Day’s “Music of Southern India,” p. 41.

| Pada technically is a sentence formed of words having @ meaning. Tena, Meaningless words used by singers to

33

exhibit the air alone, unaccompanied by words. The six members of the Gite muy be thus briefly exemplified —

Ist (Svara), sa, ga, ri, sa.

. 2nd (Viruda), Thou art my God.

3rd (Pada), I look to thee.

4th (Zena), ‘Vena, na, to, na.

5th (Pata), Dha, Dhin, Kath, Thege.

6th (Tdlu), bents by hand at equal in- tervals.

The sounds commonly sung are dha kath, thege, dhrigra, ghena, trikat, &c., imitative of the resonance of the in- strument, as analogous sounds might be employed in English. I mast here once more express my obligation to the courteous aid of Babu Stradé Prasida Ghdsha whose knowledge of the theory of Western, and both the theory and practice of Hindu music has been at my service both in his writ- ings and his practical explanation of them on the instrament of which ho scems a master.

2 Abul Fazl writes, medant and dnadani. I follow the 8S. D. Sir S. M. Tagore makes ftdéla synonymous with chhandas, or metre, and guiding its move-

254 SANGITA.

These four adhydyas treat of the varions refinements of melody. Tue rirra is Tdlédhydya, on the nature and quantity of the musical

beats.

are of four kinds.

Tue sixta is Védyddhydya, on the various musical instruments. These

(1). Tata, stringed instruments. (2). Viétata, instruments over which skin is stretched. (3). Ghana, all that gives resonance by the

concussion of two solid bodies. (4).

Sushira, wind instruments.

The First Kind, or Stringed Instruments.

The Yantra! is formed of a hollow neck of wood a yard in length, at each end of which are attached the halves of two gourds. Above the neck are sixteen frets over which are strung five steel wires fastened securely at both ends. The low and high notes and their variations are produced by the disposition of the frets,

The Vind (Hindi. Bim) resembles the Yantra, but has three strings,

The Kinnar resembles the Vina, but with a longer finger-board and has

three gourds and two wires.?

The Sar-vind is also like the Vézd but without frets. The Amritz has the finger-board shorter than the Sar-vind, and a small gourd below the upper side, and one steel wire upon which all the scales

may be played.

eighteen.

The Rabdb® has six strings of gat, but some have twelve and others

ment. The beat conforms to the variety of the metre, upon the rhythmic feet of which is based, as with the Greeks, their Willard limits the variety of beats now practised to ninety.

musical measure.

two, the musical valnes of which he tabulates. dla, the rhythm, is not to be confounded with laya, musical time pro- perly so called, divided into slow (utlam- vita), moderate (madhya), and quick, (druta), with which the beats accord. The bars are measured by mdtras, or prosodial quantity of vowels (v. p. 223) of which the divisions are explained by Sir S$. M. Tagore in his work on the Pdyas, p. 44, ff. Cf. Capt. Day’s “Music of Southern India,” Chaps. II and IV.

1 Yantra (indi Jantra) signifies an

instrament of any kind. JI do not any- where find mention of a particular mnsai- cal instrument under this name,

3 A coloured drawing of this instra- ment, as well as of the T¢xd and most of those mentioned in the text, will be found in Capt. Day’s superb volume. The plates, besides their utility as ius- trationa, are artistically beautifal and a description of the instrument accom- yaties each. The kinnar is called in Sansk. Kinnari vind, varieties of which are detailed in the S. Ratnatdra.

8 This name, if not the instrument, is of Arabian origin. Specimens of the Ra- bab, as well as of the kdnin, the Inte and other instraments are given in Lane’s “Modern Egyptians,” Chap. XVIII.

SANGiTA. * ; 255

The Sarmandal! is like the Kénin. It has twenty-one strings, some of steal, some of brass, aud some of gut.

The Sdrangi is smaller than the Rabdéb and is played like the Ghichak}

The Pindk, called also Sur-baténa, is of wood about the length of a bow and slightly bent. A string of gut is fastened to it and a hollow cup in- verted, is attached at either end. It is played like the Ghichak, bai in the left hand a small gourd is held which is used in playing.

The Adhati’ has one gourd and two wires,

The Kingara* resembles the Vind, but has two strings of gut and smaller gourds.

The Second Kind of Instruments.

The Pakhdwaj® is made of a thték shell of wood shaped like a my- robolan and hollow. It is over a yard in length and if clasped round the middle, the fingers of the two hands will meet, The ends are a little larger in circamference than the mouth of a pitcher and are covered with skin. Jt is furnished with leather braces which are strained, as in the nakéra or kettle-drum, and four pieces of wood, under a span in length, are inserted (between the shell and the braces) on the left side and serve to tune the instrument.

The Awaj is made of a hollow piece of wood, and might be described as two kettle-drums joined at the reverse ends and their heads covered with skin and braced with thongs,

The Duhul® (drum) is well-known.

The Dhadda is like the Duhul but very small. The Ardhdwaj is half the size of the A’waj. The Duf, or tambourine,’ is well-known.

1 Capt. Day writes the name Svara- Mdndala, and calls it the Kdndn or In- dian Dalcimer, the strings of brass and Steel, and occasionally gut, and played with two plectra worn on the finger-tips.

2 This is a kind of Persian lute. A Specimen of the Sdrangi, or fiddle, will be found in Day.

8 Var. Adhautt, or Adhoti.

4 In the Dictionaries Kingré.

5 One of Capt. Day’s plates represents this dram under the name of the Mridang by which it is best known in Southern India. The two heads are tuned to the tonic, and fourth or fifth.

The centre of the smaller head is couted with a composition of resin, oil, and wax and an embroidered cloth is commonly stretched over the upper side of the shell as an ornament. It is beaten by the hands, finger-tips and wrists, and is well enough known throughout Indian.

§ This is the Persian equivalent of the ordinury Dhél of Hindustan.

7 Capt. Day describes it as an octagon frame of wood, about 6 inches deep and 8 feet in diameter, covered on one side

. With skin and strained by means of a not-

work of thin leather thongs. It is struck with the fingers of the right hand, and

256 SANGITA.

The Khanjart is a tambourine smaller than the Daf, but with cymbals, and its surface is about the size of a pitcher.!

The Third Kind of Instruments.

The Tala is a pair of brass cymbals like cups with broad mouths. The Kath Tala, or castanets, are small and fish-shaped. The set con-

sists of four pieces, of wood or stone.

The Fourth Kind of Instruments.

The Shahnd,® called in Persian Surnd. ; The dfashk, or bagpipe, is composed of two reeds? perforated according

to*rule and attached (to the bag). The Bfurli is a kind of flute.

It is called in Persian Nai-ambdn.

The Upang is a hollow reed a yard long, the upper part of which has a hole in the centre in which a reed is inserted,

Tue sevENTH is Nrityddhydya, or the art of dancing.

On the Classes of Singers.

Having cursorily reviewed the subject of vocal and instrumental music, [ turn toa brief mention of their musicians. The chanters of the ancient hymns which were everywhere the same,

were called Vaikdras, and their teachers were styled Sahakédras.

The Ka-

ldants, or more commonly Kaldévanis or bards, are well known, and sing the

Dhurpad,

The Dhddhés are the Punjabi singers who play upon the Dhadda and the Kingara. They chiefly chant the praises of heroes on the field of battle and lend fresh spirit to the fight. The Kawwdls* are of this class, but

a thin switch held perpendicularly over it by the fingers of the left is made to strike the instrament at intervals, accord- ing to the time. It has no cymbals.

lL It ig » wooden hoop 8 or 9 inches in diameter and 3 or 4 inches deep, bored out of the solid. In the hoop are three or four slits containing pieces of metal strung together which clash as the tambourine is shaken.

8 They are both Persian words, the Shahnd, or Shahndt, being literally the king-pipe, a kind of clarion or oboe. The word Surna (yes is also written osyre.

8 The smaller of the two pipes is used to inflate the bag which is made of the skin of a kid. It is ased merely as a drone ; the holesin the pipe are wholly or Ppartiully stopped with wax to tune the instrament to pitch. The drone is of cano, mounted in a stock of the samo material which contains the reed. The whole recd is in one piece. Black wax is used to make the instrument wind-tight. It is also called $ruti-upanga. Day’s “ Music of Southern India.’ Plate XVI.

4 The intensive adjectival form from kaul (Us3 ), and signifies the profes- sional chanters and story-tellers.

SANGITA. 257

sing mostly after the Dehli and Jounpir style, and Persian verses in the same manner.

The Hurkdyah men play upon the Huruk, which is also called Awaj, and the women the Téla, and they also sing. Formerly they chanted the Karkha, but nowadays only the Dhurpad, and the like. Many of the wo- men add great beauty to their musical accomplishments.

The Dafzan, or tambourine player. The Dhédh¢ women chiefly play on the Daf and the Duhul, and sing the Dhurpad and the Sohlé on occa- sions of nuptial and birthday festivities in a very accomplished manner. Formerly they appeared only before assemblies of women but now before audiences of men. ; .

The Sezdah-télé. The men of this class have large drums, and the Women, while they sing, play upon thirteen pairs of tdlas at once, two being on cach wrist, two on the joint of each elbow, two on the junction of the shoulder blades,! and two on each shoulder, one on the breast and two on the fingers of each hand. They are mostly from Gujarét and Malwah,

The Nafwas exhibit some graceful dancing, and introduce various styles to which they sing. They play upon the Pakhdwaj, the Rabdb and the Téla.

The Kirtaniya are Brahmans, whose instruments are such as were in use among the ancients. They dress up smooth-faced boys as women and make them perform, singing the praises of Krishna and reciting his_ acts.

The Bhagatiya have songs similar to the above, but they dress up in various disguises and exhibit extraordinary mimicry. They perform at night.

The Bharvayya® resemble the last-named, but they exhibit both by night and day. Sitting and standing in the compass of a copper dish called in Hindi, thdli, they sing in various modes and go through wonderful per- formances.

The Bhdnd play the Duhul and Tala and sing and mimic men and animals. ’

The Kanjaré: The men of this class play the Pakhdwaj, the Rabdb and the Téla, while the women sing and dance. His Majesty calls them Kanchants8

1 The words used are al and Wiis aries, Bhavaiyd, a dancer or story- teller,

both of which signify shoulder-blade. I 8 The term is synonymous with éraipa

am unable to understand any otber ar- in the lowest aonse of this word, from

rangement of the cymbals, the common profession or practice of the

2 So the text, but in the Diction- olass,

258 THE AKHAARA.

The Nats are rope-dancers, and perform wonderful acrobatio feats. They play on the Téla and Duhul.

The Bahu-ripi exhibit their mimicry by day : youths disguise themselves as old men so successfully that they impose upon the most acute obser- vers. .

The Bdzigar performs wonderful feats of legerdemain and by his dexterous conjuring deceives the eye. For instance, one will carry an enormous stone on his back, or they will appear to cut a man into pieces and then restore him to his natural state.

Their extraordinary performances are beyond description and each of them affects a special style of vocal accompaniment.

The Akhara

is an entertainment held at night by the nobles of this country, some of whose (female) domestic servants are taught to sing and play. Four pretty women lead off a dance, and some graceful movements are executed. Four others are employed to sing, while four more accompany them with cymbals: two others play the pakhdwaj, two the upang, while the Dekhan rabéb, the viné and the yantra, are each taken by one player. Besides the usual lamps of the entertainment, two women holding lamps stand near the circle of performers, Some employ more. It is more common for a band of these nafwds to be retained in service who teach the young slave- girls to perform. Occasionally they instruct their own girls and take them to the nobles and profit largely by the commerce.

His Majesty has a considerable knowledge of the principles explained in the Sang¢ta and other works, and what serves as an occasion to induce & lethargic sleep in other mortals, becomes to him a source of exceeding vigilance.

Gaja § éstra

is the knowledge of elephants and all that concerns their various peculiari- ties, their care and health and the causes and symptoms of sickness and its remedies. ;

S‘alihotra, ‘ or veterinary surgery, is the knowledge of all that appertains to the horse and its treatment.

Vastuka is the science of architecture and its characteristics. Supa treats of the art of cookery and the properties of food.

RAJANITI 259

Rajaniti

is the scionce of statc-craft. As it behoves a monarch in the governance of the interior spirit, to avoid the evil results of desire and anger, similarly the administration of temporal affairs.is guided by observance of the like conduct. The principal occasions of unruliness of desires which cause the downfall of princes, are said to be ten:—(1). The pursuit of ‘game. (2). Dicing. (3). Sleep. (4). Censoriousness. (5). Inter- course with women. (6). Singing! songs. (7). Dancing. (8). The society of musicians. (9). Wine. (10). Solitude.

The chief sources of the calamities of anger are: (1). Confiscation of property. (2). Ungraciousnes¢.in acknowledgment of benefits. (3). Be- traying a secret. (4). Unmindfulness of the service of dependents. (5). Abusive language. (6). Unjust suspicion. (7). Taking life without due deliberation, and the like. (8). Publishing the faults of others.

It is incumbent on monarchs to live free from the baneful conse- quences of desire and anger and not to sully their dignity with these eighteen sources of crime. If they are unable to avoid them altogether, they should never transgress due measure in their regard. They say that & prince should be God-fearing, circumspect and just, compassionate and” bountiful, recognising virtue and the distinctions of rank and merit. He should be courteous in speech, kindly in aspect and condescending in his manner. He should be ever ambitious of extending his dominions, and should protect his subjects from the exactions of revenue-officers, from thieves, robbers and other -evil-doers. He should proportion the punishment to the offence and be firm of purpose and yet clement. His intelligencers should be appointed from among men of trust and sagacity. He should never despise his enemy nor be remiss in vigilance nor be proud of his wealth and power. He should not admit to his court venal and corrupt designers. A king resembles o gardener and should carry out, in regard to his subjects, the course pursued in the care of his garden by the other, who puts away thorns and weeds and keeps his flower-beds in good order, allowing no Gepredations from without. In the same way a prince should transfer to the frontier of his dominions the turbulence of the seditious, and free the courts of his palace from their machinations, and allow no other evil designers to enter them. The gardener, likewise, from time to time, prunes the redundancy of leaf and branch on hie trees, so the king Should isolate from each other the more powerful nobles whose friends

1 T am not sure of this interpretation priate, and Viller admits this significu- of if Us, From the context, the tion of rent) in his lexicon. Meaning 1 have given ia the most appro-

260 RAJANITI.

and dependents are dangerously numerous. The gardener also invigo- rates his weak saplings with water, and the king should similarly sustain with beneficence his impoverished soldiery.

The king should choose a circumspect person of exemplary pictr, courteous in disposition, vigilant, zealous, and masterful, reading the signs of the times and divining the intentions of his lord, and ready of speech, and in consultation with him, provide for the spiritual and temporal affairs of his kingdom. But if he finds himself physically unable to carry on these duties, he should entrust their complicated direction to him. In impor- tant affairs he should not consult with many advisers, because the qualifica- tions necessary in such cases are fidelity, breadth of view, fortitude of spirit, and perspicacity, and the union of these four priceless virtues in any one man is uncommonly rare. Although some statesmen of former times consulted with men of a different stamp with the intention of acting di- rectly contrary to their advice, in the majority of cases this course did not answer and many disasters were the consequence, for this special reason, that it is difficult to efface from the mind the suspicions aroused by the insinuations of cowardly, unprincipled, short-sighted aud base men. Former princes adopted the practice of selecting from four to eight intelligent counsellors with the qualifications above-mentioned, under the presidency of one of theirnumber. The opinion of cach of these was separa- tely taken on matters concerning the welfare of the State and the reve- nues, after which they were assembled in consultation and their several opinions carefully weighed without disclosing the author.

Further, a prince is in need of a faithful attendant, a profound astro- loger, and a skilful physician. His wide experience will enable him to surround himself with friends, to maintain a well-appointed force, and to fill his treasury. He will portion out his dominions and entrust them to just and circumspect governors, and unite them in a befitting co-opera- tion of government. He is zealous in the construction and provision of his fortresses and careful in their maintenance.

With his equals in power he is on terms of amity and concord and exacts tribute from the weak. He sows dissensions in the armies of one more powerful than himself by skilful intrigue, ov failing this, he conci+ liates him with presents. As long as possible he avoids hostilities with all, but when war is inevitable, he enters upon it with fearlessness and vigour and upholds his honour. He should consider a prince whose ter- ritories are conterminous with his own, as his enemy though he be pro- fuse in demonstrations of friendship. With one whose country is situated next beyond, he should form an alliance. With a third more remote, he should avoid all intercouise whether hostile or friendly.

VYAVATIARA, 261

After the above manner have statesmen laid down rules of govern- ment, suggesting approved modes of conduct and enforcing them with numerous happy illustrations, all of which are referrible to the qualities of wisdom, recognition of merit, bravery, good temper, reserve in speech, zeal, and benevolence. :

Vyavahara or The Administration of Justice.

The Jearned among the Hindus say that litigation in its various kinds falls under eighteen titles,! foreach of which there is a separate course of procedure, viz.—(1). Non-payment of debt. (2). Deposits. (3). Sale without ownership. (4). Disputes in partnership. (5). Reclaiming a gift. (6). Disputes between master and servant regarding wages, under which head are included labourers and such as work for hire. (7). Default of revenue by the cultivator. (8). Recision of purchaso be- tween buyer and seller. (9). Mulcts on herdsmen. (10). Boundary disputes. (11). Slander. (12). Assault. (13). Theft. (14). Vio- lence with bloodshed. (15). Adultery. (16). ‘Altercation between man and wife. (17). Inheritance. (18). Gambling disputes.

The king in his judicial character must erect his tribunal facing the east. He must conduct the duties of his office in person, and if he cannot always himself attend to them, he must delegate his authority to a’ wise, fearless and painstaking deputy.

The plaintiff is termed Vddin and the defendant Prati-vddin. A child under twelve years of age may not be summoned to court, nor one who is drank; nor one crazy, nor one who is sick or engaged in the service of

1 Abul Fazl’s authority seems to be the “ Ordinances of Manu” of which the &th chapter deals with Civil and Criminal law. The 3rd verse runs thus—‘ Day by day (he should judge) separately (casos) ander the 18 titles by reasons (drawn) from local usage and the trea- tises.” Burnell, Ed. Hopkins. The tat- ter observes that these titles are not Part of the original system of law; it appears only in the smpitis, and its later development is easily traced. The eighteen titles are somewhat differently Worded in Manu, and I give them for Comparison. | Non-payment of debt;

34 1

pledges ; sale without ownership ; part- nership and non-delivery of what has been givens non-payment of wages ; breach of contract; revocation of sale (and) purchase; dispates between mas- ter and servant; disputes about bonnd- aries ; assault (and) slonder ; thoft; vio- lence ; adaltery ; the law betweou man and woman; partition; dicing; games with animals.” By the latter is signi- fied betting on them in fights, and under adultery is probably included illicit in- tercourse in general, I do not observe any rule regarding the position of the tribunal.

262 VYAVAHARA.

the State, nor @ woman without relations, or of high family, or who has recently given birth to a child. A discreet person should be commis- sioned to interrogate in such cases, or they should be brought into the royal presence.

The plaintiff’s statement is taken down in writing, with the date of the year, month, and day, and the names of the two parties and their an- cestors for three descents, and many other particulars. The reply of the defendant is then recorded and both their statements are carefully investi- gated. The plaintiff is then asked for any documentary evidence and for his witnesses. These should not be fewer than four, though some allow only three, and even one is considered sufficient if he be a person of known veracity.

A cbild under five may not serve as a witness, nor a man broken down with age. The evidence of a Sidra is only available for a Sddra, and that of a handicraftsman for one of his own trade. The evidence of a blind man may not be taken, nor of one who is deaf, or diseased, or drunk, or crazy, nor of a gambler, nor of a notorious evil-liver, nor of one op- pressed by hunger and thirst, nor of an angry man, nor of a thief, nor of one who is being taken to execution. For women, women should serve as witnesses, A friend may not witness for a friend, nor an enemy against an enemy, nor partners for each other. In all oral litigation, dryness of the lips, and biting them, and licking the sides of the mouth, alteration of voice and change of colour, should be taken into consideration as collateral proof.

In all suits these conditions of evidence are imperative except under titles eleven to fourteen.

If there be no documentary evidence or witnesses, the judge must decide to the best of his ability, with caution and prudence ; but if he cannot discover the facts of the case, he must cause the plaintiff or, as some say, either of the two parties, ag he thinks best, to undergo the ordeal.! This is of eight kinds.

The first kind. The man is weighed and taken ont of the scales, and after some prayers and incantations, he is again weighed. If his scale rises, his claim is allowed, but an even balance or his scale preponderating, are proofs of its falsehood. Some authorities say that the balance is never even. This ordeal is only for Brahmans.

The second kind. Seven or nine circles are drawn with a distance of sixteen fingers’ breadth between each periphery. The person is then

1 The word is oath, a translation of cating curses On the head of the taker of the Sanskrit éapatha, which means also the oath. In this case, ordeal is evi- ordeal, itis an asseveration by impre- dently the trae signification.

VYAVAHARA, 263

bathed and religious ceremonies and incantations, as above described, are gone through. His two hands are then rubbed over with rice-bran, and Seven green leaves of the pipal-tree (Ficus religiosa) are placed upon them and bound round seven times with raw silk, A piece of iron, weighing 3} sers and heated red-hot, is then placed upon the leaves which, thus heated, he carries and advances taking one step between each circle, till, on arriving at the last, he throws the iron down. If there is no sign of a barn, his word is accepted. If the iron fall from his hands mid-way, he must begin again.

The third kind. The person is made to stand in water up to his navel and dips under with his face ‘€o the east. Then, from a bow measuring 106 fingers breadth, a reed arrow without an iron point, is shot off so that it shall fly with the wind and a fast runner is sent to fetch it. If he can keep under water from the time the shaft is loosed till the runner returns with it, his cause is declared just. This ordeal is especially for the Vaisya caste.

The fourth kind. Seven barley corns of a deadly poison are administered in the spring season (Vasania), ot five in the heats (Grishmd), or four in the rains (Varsha), six in the autumn (Serad), and seven in the winter (Haimanta). These are to be mixed with thirty-three times the quantity of clarified butter and given to the man after certain incantations. The face of the patient must be towards the south, and the person who admi- nisters must face the east or north. If during a period in which the hands may be clapped 500 times, the poison does not take effeci, his truth is proved. Antidotes are then given to him to prevent any fatal effects. This ordeal is peculiar to the Sidra caste.

The fifth kind. An idol is first washed, and after worship is paid to it, incantations are pronounced over the water it was washed with, and three mouthfuls of it are given to the person under ordeal. If po misfor- tune happens to him within a fortnight the justness of his cause is acknowledged.

The siete kind. Rice of the class called Sdthi! is placed in an earthen vessel and kept all night. Incantations are next morning pronounced over it, and the person is made to eat it while facing the east. He is then required to spit upon a leaf of the pipal (Ficus religiosa), or the bhojpatra (Betula bhejpatra).2 If there should be any marks of blood, or the corners of the mouth swell, or symptoms of ague supervene, the untruth of bis case is inferred.

1 Produced in the rains, and so called 8 Iam indebted to Dr. King for this because it ripens in 60 days from the name. | titne of sowing.

264 VYAVAHARA.

The seventh kind. An earthen or stone vessel is taken, mensut- ing sixteen fingers in length and breadth, and four fingers deep. Into this forty ddms weight of clarified butter or sesame-oil is poured and brought - to boiling point, and one mdsha of gold, which is equal to four surkhs, is thrown into the boiling-oil. If the person can take out the gold with two fingers without being scalded, his cause is just.

The eighth kind. A symbol of Dharma, or Innocence, is fashioned of silver, and one of Adhkarma, or Guilt, of lead or iron; or the former word is written on a piece of a white cloth, ora leaf of the bhoj tree, and the latter on a piece of black cloth, and these are put into a jar which has never held water. The person under ordeal is then told to draw out one of these. If the symbol of innocence is drawn out, his cause is just. This ordeal is applicable in determining the righteousness of all four castes,

If a suit cannot be decided in one day, bail is taken ; and a second suit may not be brought against the same person till the first is disposed of. When a claim is proved, the plaintiff is put in possession, and a fine of an amount equal to the value of the suit is exacted of the defendant. If the plaintiff loses his cause, he pays double the value of the suit.

Having cursorily explained the procedure regarding suits, evidence and ordeal, I now as briefly record the mode of adjudication under the eighteen titles of law-suits.

1. Non-payment of debt. Hf the debt be without deposit and the dispute be regarding the amount of interest, a Brahman shall pay two per cent. (per mensem), a Kshatriya three, a Vaisya four, and a Siadra five per cent: If there be security, only one-fourth of the above amounts are recoverable though a higher rate may have been agreed to. For risks by land-travel, up to ten per cent. is allowed, and not exceeding twenty-five per cent. for risks at sea. If interest has been agreed upon, and ten times the length of the stipulated period has elapsed, @ claim shall not be allowed for more than double the principal! When the interest is paid on corn, the sum of the interest and principal should not be more than five times the principal. Ifthe debtor is unable to pay, he must renew the obligation bringing the instrument? and witnesses for its verification.

1 That is the sum of interest plus principal mast not exceed twice thé original debt. According to Manna, five times the principal is payable on corn, fruit, wool and draught animals.

% It is worth while noticing that the Sanskrit for this term karanam is trans-

lated by Hopkins ‘proof,’ while stating in a note that the meaning ‘dooument’ given by commentators is not necessary and seems improbable. Yet this is exactly the translation of Abul Faz), the word ‘ Sanad’ employed by him signi- fying document or instrument,

VYAVAHARA. 265

‘2. Deposits. If the receiver of a deposit make use of it without the owner’s permission and delay its restoration when claimed, he shall forego half the interest due (in compensation). If he deny the deposit and there be no documentary evidence or witnesses, the judge may pri- vately direct a third person to make a deposit with the same man and after some time to demand it back. If he acts as before, he shall be com- ‘pelled to satisfy the first claim, or submit to trial by ordeal; but if the pledge be stolen by a thief, or if it be burnt, or washed away by water, or plun- dered by an enemy, restitution shall not be made. If he has dealt fraudu- lently with it, he shall make restitution and pay a similar amount as a fine.

3. Sale without ownership. “If a man claim possession of property, it shall be restored to him free on proof of ownership, and the money taken back from the seller. And if it be sold privately or under its value, or by a person not entitled to do so, the judge shall fine the offender as he thinks proper. And if he brings forward the thief,! it shall not be im- puted as the crime of a thief, but a fine shall be exacted from him asa thief.

4. Partnership. If there be a dispute between partners and any formal deed of partnership exist and be proved, it shall be carried out in accordance with its terms; otherwise the profit and loss shall be divided according to the proportions of capital invested. If one of the partners dissipate the joint property or, without the consent of the other, remove it or otherwise fraudulently deal with it, he shall make it good to the other by @ fine. Or if on the other hand, he make a profit, he shall not be required to give more than one-tenth to his partner. If one of them is guilty of fraud, he shall be ejected from partnership and the interest due to him shall be exacted by the judge. If one of the partners be left in charge of the joint property and any deficiency or injury occurs through his neg- lect, he shall make it good.

5. Reclaiming a gift. If gift is made under the influence of anger, sickness, grief, fear, or as a bribe, or in jest, it may be recalled: also what has been given by a child, or a drunken or crazy man. In other cases it may not be reclaimed. And if the gift be made for a future benefit or in exchange, it may rot, under any pretence, be resumed.

6. Wages, Hire, Rent. If wages, hire, or rent be received in advance,

1 Or “if he appear a thief.” The sion, one should not allow him to be a

elliptical language of the text can be un- derstood only by comparison with the text of Manu: verses 197-198 run as follows :—-(197.) “If a man not being himself the owner, sells the property Of another without the owner’s permis.

witness, (since he is) a thief (althongh) he may not think he is a thief.

(198.) He should be held to a fine of 600 panas if he isa near relation: if he is not a near relation and has no excuse, he would incur the fine of a thief.”

266 VYAVAITARA.

the agreement may not be violated. If it be broken, the offender shall be fined to the amount of double the sum; but if the money has not been actually paid, the fine shall extend only to the amonnt originally fixed. If a servant loses his master’s property, he must make good the equivalent, but if it be taken from him by violence, he is not liable to restitution.

7. Revenue. If any one fail to pay the usual revenue, the whole of his effects shall be confiscated, and he shall be expelled the country.

8. Purchase and sale. A purchaser may on the day of purchase re- turn the goods bought; on the second day he may return them on a forfeit of a twentieth of their cost: on the third day, of a tenth, after which they cannot be sent back.! But a maid-servant may be sent back within one month; a slave, within fifteen days; corn, within ten days; jewels, within seven days ; cattle in general, within five days; a milch-cow, within three days; iron, within one day; unless there be any stipulation to the eontrary. The same conditions hold good with the seller, but he must sustain the loas in the same proportion as the excess payments of the purchaser in the opposite case. ,

9. Herdsmen. If through the neglect of a herdsman a beast is lost or dies or is injured, he must make good the loss. If cattle eat a grain-crop near a village or city, the herdsman is not amenable to fine. Sown-fields should be distant from a small village four hundred cubits ; from one of moderate size, eight hundred, and from a large settlement, sixteen hundred cubits.* If the trespass shonld occur through the neglect of the keeper, he must pay the value of the crop destroyed, otherwise the owner of the ‘ eattle is responsible. For a buffalo, a camel or donkey the fine is seven mashas of silver: for an ox, half the above: for a sheep or goat, half the fine for an ox. If the beast lies down to eat, the fine is doubled. An ele- phant, a horse, as well as cattle set at liberty as an act of piety, (it being the custom, eleven days after the death of a Brahman, thirteen days after the death of a Kshatriya, sixteen after that of a Vaisya, and thirty after the death of a Sddra, to let loose eight or four bulls, or one bull with a number of cows after branding them in a special manner) or a cow that has lately

land is intended for a common and not to be tilled. The staff is picked up

1 According to Mann, (VIII. 222-23) he may return them within ten days, after

which he cannot return them withont being heavily fined.

& * Roand about every village there should be a strip of Jand one hundred bows or even three casts of a staff in width: sround a city, it should be three times a8 wide.” Manu. VIII, 237. This

after the first cast, and again as it falls, and so on three times. The strength of the cast might fitly be that of Polypotes. “Oocor tls 7 eppipe kadatpora Bouxdros dvhp, ‘H 3€@ eatoooudvn xérerat 5k Bous dyeAaias.

i. XXII, 845.

VYAVAHARA. 267

calved, or animals that have strayed, are not amenable to fine if they damage the crops. The same rule applies to royal preserves! as to crops. 10. Boundaries. Disputes regarding boundaries may be adjudicated at any season save during the rains.® The owners of land define their boundaries by burying charcoal, stones, potsherds, hair, bones, and the like that do not perish even after a long time; and sometimes a tree® is wmade the boundary. The judge determines the dispute on the production of such evidence, and the witness of four, eight, or ten husbandmen,

keepers,’ or hunters.

The witnesses shall wear red garments, place earth upon their heads and wear a string of red flowers, round their necks, and shall swear that their good deeds may lose all merit if they lie. If there be no witnesses nor boundary mark, the judgment of the king shall determine the line.

1]. Slander. This is of three kinds, viz.—(1).

to his face.

the abuse be from one of

(2). By insinuation and suggestion. (3). mother, sister, or such other improper language.

Reviling another Reviling his For the first two, if

inferior towards one of a superior caste

the fine is twelve-and-a-half ddms; to an equal, half that sum; towards an inferior, one-fourth. For the third kind, the fiue is*twenty-five dams, if between equals, or if a Bréhman reviles a Kshatriya; but fifty, if the abuse ig from a Kehatriya to a Brahman. If a Vaiéya reviles a Brdhman he ig fined seventy-five dims, but in the opposite case the fine is twelve-

and-a-half.

If a Stdra thus offends against a Brahman, he is fined

one hundred déms,’ a Brahman reviling a Sidra pays six-and-a-quarter.

2 According to Manu, a cow with a calf not ten daysold, bulls and also the cat- tle of the gods (i.e., ordained for sacrifice) wkether with or without a keeper, ought not to be punished. (The beast doing the damage is always represented as paying penalty.) The keopor is not liable to fine if his cattle injure a grain-crop not enclosed, but in ALL cases the value of the crop destroyed must be pnid to the owner of the field. Mana. VIII. 241. The punctuation in the text is mislead- ing. :

3 “Tf a dispute has arisen between two villages in regard to a boundary, the king should determine the boundary in the month of Jyatstha (middle of May to middle of June) as the boundary

marks are then very plain.” VIII. 245.

8 The trees recommended are the ficus Indica, and religiosa; butea frondosa, bombaz heptaphyllum, and vali:a robusta, palms and milky trees, as being conspi- cuous, or very enduring. Thickets of bamboo, prosopis spicigera and trapa bis. pinosa, are also recommended, VIII. 247.

• So I translate wlolue, The men named by Mann are hunters, bird-catch- era, cowberds, fishermen, root-diggers, snake-catchers, gleaners, and other mon who wander about the woods.

§ Corporal punishment is the punish- ment of this offence in ‘Manu,’ and all the othor fines are heavier.

268 VVAVSHARA.

A Vaigya reviling 1 Kshatriya pays fifty, and the fine in the opposite case is twelve-and-a-half; and the same proportion between a Vaisya anda Sidra. If one of the gods be reviled, or the king, or 2 Brabman who has read the four Vedas, the fine is 540 déms. If the abuse be directed against the people of a quarter, half of the above; and one-fourth if against the inhabitants of the city.

12. Assault. This is of four kinds: (1). Throwing earth, clay or filth upon any one. (2). Putting him in bodily fear by threatening him with the fist, a stick, or other weapon. (3). Striking with the hands or feet and the like. (4). Wounding with any weapon.

The first kind. In the first case, the fine is five déms, but if filth is thrown, ten, provided the parties are equals; buttwice as much if it be an inferior against a superior, and only half in the opposite case.

The second kind, Threatening with the hand, &c., five ddéms, and (with stick or other weapon) between equals, eleven ; between superiors and inferiors, as above.

The third kind. If the blow cause a swelling or pain in the limb, 270 déms. If by an inferior against a superior, the hand or foot, or other offending member shall be cut off, or a suitable fine inflicted. In the ins- tance of a Kshatriya against a Brahman, the fine is 540 déms; a Vaisya against a Brahman, 1,080; a Siudra against a Bréhman, 2,160; a Vaidya against a Kshatriya or a Sidra against a Vaisya 540; a Sidra against a Kshatriya, 1,080; a Brahman against a Kshatriya, 135; or against s Vaigya, 674, or against a Sidra, 333; a Kshatriya against a Vaigya, 135; against a S’idra 87},

The fourth kind. Between those of like caste if the skin be abraded, fifty ddms, and if the flesh is ent, twenty tolake of gold, and if a bone be broken, the offender is banished. If an inferior against a higher caste, the fine is doubled, and in the opposite caso, it shall be a-half. If treat- ment is necessary, the offender shall pay the expenses of medicine and daily ‘keep’ till the injared man be restored to health.

In the case of a sheep, antelope! and the like, if there be burt, the fine is eight déms; if it be rendered useless, the value must be paid to the owner, with a fine of 125 dams; and twice as much, if it be killed. For a horse, camel, or ox, the fine is also double. When damage is done to valuable plants, the value must be paid to the owner and a fine of ten déms, but eight déms if they be of small value.*

1 Different sorte of antelopesand deer, 8 Manu givos five times the value of flamingoes and parrots, are “ propitious” damage donc to leather, woodon, or ear- forest animals, and a fine imposed for then-ware, and to flowers, roots und killing them: also the small animals, fruit,

such as crows, catr, &c.

VYAVAHARA. 269

13. Theft. If any one steal above one hundred tolahs of gold or silver or any valuables up to this amount, or more than 663 mans of corn, or the child or the wife of any person of distinction, he shall be liable to the punishment of death. If the amount be less than one hundred and more than fifty tolahs, he shall suffer: the loss of his hand. If, fifty or less, he shall pay eleven times the amount asa fine. The same applies to corn. In all cases the equivalent of the amount stolen shall be made good to the owner, and if the thief is unable to pay, he shall work out the amount in menial service. In other cases of theft, corporal punishment, imprisonment or fine, is at the discretion of the judge.

14, Violence with bloodshed. . If a man of inferior caste kill a man of ahigher caste, the penalty is death. If a Brahman slay a Brahman, his entire estate shall be confiscated, his head shaved, his forehead branded and he shall be banished from the kingdom. If a Brahman slay a Kshatriya, he shall pay a fine of 1,000 cows and a bull; if he slay a Vaigya, 100 cows and a bull, or if a Sidra, 10 cows and a bull. The same rule applies to Kshatriyas and Vaisyas. If a Sddra slay a Sidra, he shall be fined 500, cows and a bull. If the murderer be not found, the people of the city, village, or quarter in which the murder was committed shall produce some of his family or pay in default any fine that the king may inflict.

15. Adultery. Commerce between a woman and a man other than her husband, is of three kinds: (1). When they converse and jest together in private. (2). When a present is sent to the house of the other. (3). When they meet and criminal intercourse ensues. In the second cdge, a fine may be inflicted at the discretion of the king. The third is of two kinds, viz., with a maiden and one who is not a maiden. The former may be Gishonoured 7 PadAG 7 Saxrideo 7 LiAw 7 TroovTw Twi dpydvw. The latter may be women who are guarded, or such as gad abroad.! In each of these four cases it may occur with the woman’s consent or otherwise, and of these eight, the criminality may take place between two of a like caste. In the latter instance if it be a girland she consent in all these offences, and no force is offered on one side or resistance on the other,® the man shall be compelled to marry her whether he will or no. In the case of pollution and the like, he must pay a fine of 200 déms. If he violate her without her consent, he shall be put to death, but the woman is not liable to punishment, If he forcibly pollute her, he must suffer the loss of his

1 Hopkins translates ‘wandering wo- chorets of an heretical religion.’ Abul Men’ (Manu, VIII. 363), and supposes Fazl’s rendering is of dmoS, gadding, them to be possibly Baddhistic nuns. about the streets.’

Sir W. Jones interprets ‘female an- 8 The y after ogy) is superfuous.

35,

27% VYAVANARA,

fingers, and pay a fine of 600 déms. If the offender be a Brahman, he shall be banished, but no other penalty is exacted.! If the man be of higher caste, he shall be made to take her in marriage, even if he be unwilling, in which case an additional fine is imposed. If she be nota maiden, and both be of like caste, and she be guarded,? and give her con- sent, the man is fined 270 dams, but if without her consent, the fine shall be 540 dims. If she be one used to gad abroad and consents, the fine is 250 déms; if forced, 500. If the. man be of higher caste, the fine in all cases shall be 250 ddéms; if of inferior caste, death is the penalty in every instance, and the ears and nose of the woman shall be cut off.

16. Altercation between man and wife. If after marriage a man dis- covers any natural defect in his wife, he may put her away without remedy on her part, but the woman’s father shall be fined. If a man offer one daughter in marriage and substitute another in her place, he shall be compelled to give both. Whena man has journeyed on a pilgrimage to holy shrines and is absent beyond the term agreed upon, the wife shall wait at home for eight years whatever her position in life may be.2 If he has gone abroad for the sake of knowledge or fame or wealth, she shall wait six years: if he journeys to seek another wife, three years. At the expiration of these periods, she is at liberty to leave her husband’s house to obtain a livelihood. The husband on his return from abroad, if he wishes to put her away on account of her departure, is not-permitted to doso. If the wife does not observe the condition of these periods, the husband is at liberty to put heraway. If the husband fall sick and the wife does not minister to him, he may not, on. his recovery, for this cause divorce her, but he may refuse intercourse with her for three months and deprive her of all that she possesses,* after which period he shall be reconciled to her. With Braéh- mans, divorce does not take place but a husbaud may avoid the sight and presence of his wife: her maintenance must nevertheless be continued. The wife may not take another husband. If he be guilty of great crimes or have any contagious disease, the wife is at liberty to separate from him. If a Brahman have a wife of eaoh of the four castes, he shall assign them their respective social functions. In religious ceremonies, and person-

1 ‘Let him banish the offender from his realm with all his property secure and his body unhurt.’ Sir W. Jones, VIII. 380.

low him. Another states that she may marry another husband. The former opinion, says Hopkins, rests on a later view of second marriages.

3 Under the protection of her husband or other relative.

8 One commentator’s opinion is, that, after the eight years she must fol-

4 Her ornaments and houschold far- niture, her jewellery, her bed, and even her servants, Hopkins, M. 1X. 78 n,

THE FOUR PERIODS OF RELIGIOUS LIFE. 271

al attendance such as anointing with oil and adorning! him and similar duties, he must employ only his own caste,

17. Inheritance’ While ason lives, no other relation or kinsman shares the estate except the wife whois equal to the son. If there be neither son nor wife, the unmarried daughter inherits. If there be also no daughtor, the mother is the heir.

“ If there be no mother, the father takes possession. Tf there be no father alive, his brother shall be heir, In default of a brother, the brother’s son inherits. In default of a brother’s son, the estate is divided amongst the surviving

kindred. -*

ee If he leave no relations, the teacher inherits, or in default of the

teacher, his fellow pupils.*

In the absence of all these the estate lapses to the Crown.

18. Gambling. Whosoever plays with false dice shall be banished. Tf he refuse to pay his stake, it shall be taken from him, and of his win- hings, the king shall receive one-tenth,®? and one-twentieth shall be taken

for dues.*

To each of these eighteen titles there are many illustrations, and con- flicting opinions are recorded. I content myself with this short exposition.

The Four Periods of Religious Life.

Having reviewed the various branches of learning in their scientific aspects, I proceed to some account of their practical modes of life. *

Among the Brahmans, the period of individual life, after the intelli- Bence is to some degree matpred, is divided into four portions, to each of

! The duties of a Bréhman’s wifo are to give food to beggar guests, and attend to her part of the sacrificial propara- tious, She boathes and adorns her hus- band, cleans his teeth and anoints hims And since she helds the highest rank sho Gives him his food, drink, wreaths, clothes And ornaments. ‘I’he text has WoyS, Sy) 08 one of her duties; I would read, 3) for we. |

% This order of inheritance is given hy the commentary of Kulliéza,—-v. Hop- kins. IX. 187 n.

8 In Manu, gambling, whether by dice or with lifeless things (dyute), or by matches between rams and cocks and

’

other animals (samdhvaya), is absolutely forbidden ; play must be suppressed and

‘ gamesters banished or corporally pu-

nished by amputation of hand or foot. Abul Fazi’s conditions must apply ta a later period when gambling was made financially profitable and royal gamb- ling-houses wero established and play withont royal authority penalised by fino. v. Ibid. note §. 225, IX.

gstocslyo. I conjecture this inter-

pretation. From there being a variant $Idcgh 3, T presume the reading is ques- tionable. It probably refers to a licence for the tables, or permission to play,

B72 THE FOUR PERIODS OF RELIGIOUS LIFE.

which is assigned its special important duties. These periods sevorally receive the name of Asrama.

Tae First Penton is the Brahma-charya, or religious studentship, In- - vestiture with the sacred thread is regarded by the Brahmans as the first principle of their creed, and the three superior castes do not acknow- ledge the right of due membership without it, With a Brihman it must be made in the eighth year, or if this auspicious time is suffered to elapse, it may be performed up to sixteen years of age. A Keshatriya may be invested between eleven and twenty-two years of age, ard a Vaisya from twelve to twenty-four, but a Sidra is not considered a fitting recipient. It is imperative that the investiture should take place for each caste within the prescribed periods from which date the initiation is reckoned, otherwise there is exclusion from caste. The Brahman receives the sacred string from his father or teacher, and the two other castes from a Brahman. None but a Brahman may twist the string, and that which he wears for the first time must be twisted by his father or teacher or by himself. The teacher’s son has also the same privilege. Three strands, in length ninety- six times the circumference of the fist, are united and twisted, making o twist of nine strands. This is again folded into three without twisting and secured by a knot at ench end. This is the sacred thread. It is placed on the left shoulder and carried across the body to the right side, and thus the length is from the shoulder to the thumb of the right hand. It is worn diagonally like a belt. A Brahman wears five together, the other two castes, but three. Some authorities say that a cotton thread is for the special use of the Brahman, woollen for the Kshatriya and hempen thread for the Vaisya. Similarly, a thong of deer-skin, three fin- gers in breadth, is worn with it bué not of the same length. A Brahman uses the skin of the black antelope ; a Kshatriya the skin of any other kind of deer, and a Vaisya of a goat. At this period they also wear round the waist a girdle of a particular kind of grass called in Sanskrit Muitja (Saccharum Munija). ,

He next learns the géyatrt,! which are certain words :n praise of the

1 The Gdéyatrf verse is taken from the Rig Veda ILI. 62, and is repeated by every Br4hman at his morning and even- ing devotions. From being addressed to the ean (Savita) as generator, it is also called Savitri. The verse runs :—

sel 3]

at Cae Sake fa ay a: Hey We

rrahegacd ¥

“Of the god-like gun this surpassing radiance we contemplate which excites to action our intelligence.” This celebrated stanza is perhaps alluded to in Tennyson’s beantifal hymn to the sun in “ Akbar’s Dream.”

“ Once again thon flamest upwards, once

again we see thee rise,

Every morning is thy birth-day giad-

dening human hearts and eyes.

THE FOUR PERIODS OF RELIGIOUS LIFE. 273 sun, resembliag the kalimah or profession of faith in Islim. He also receives a staff of palésa wood (Butea frondosa), but for the other two castes it is made of some other wood.

He leaves his father’s house and chooses a lodging near his teacher, learns his letters and begins reading the Vedas, He first reads that Veda which it is his special duty to learn, and theu the remaining three. They relate that when the sage Vydsa divided the Vedas into fonr parts, he instructed one of his pupils in each, from which time the descendants and the pupils of these respectively read their own Veda first. The Vedas are never read during the first degree of the moon’s course (pariwé), nor during the eighth, fourteenth,‘‘fifteenth, or thirtieth, nor on the night of the fourth, eighth, or fourteenth, nor during ‘an eclipse of the sun, but auy of the other acts may be performed at those times.

When a Brahman goes to relieve the necessities of nature, he hangs the sacred thread upon his right ear, and on such an occasion by day, turns his face to the north and by night to the south. He washes himself five times, each time first mixing the water with earth, and then washes the left hand ten times in the same manner, and next both hands seven times, and lastly both bis feet in the same way. After he urines, he washes the part as above described ond the left hand three times and each hand and-foot once. From the day of his investiture till sixteen years of age, this number of purifications must be observed and Goubled after he exceeds that age. Next, in a chosen spot, he should sit down on his haunches facing the east or north, keeping his knees erect and with his hand between them should drink three fills of his palm. A Brf&hman should swallow as much water as will reach his chest: » Ksha- triya as much as will suffice to reach his throat ; a Vaisya, as far as the root of his tongue. A Sidra may drink but once. He then uses a tooth stick (miswak) twelve fingers breadth in length, taking a fresh one every day.

He may not wear more than four coverings for his person. Theso Rnre: (1). Langoft, or waist-cloth, which is worn to cover only two parts of his body. (2). A small lung! worn above the other. (3). A

Every morning here we greet it, bow- ing lowly down before thee ; Thou the god-like, thoa the changeless

in thy ever changing skies. Shadow-maker, shadow-slayer, arrow- ing light from clime to clime, Year thy myriad laurentes hail thee monarch in their wood-land rhymo. Woavble bird and open flower, and men below the dome of azare

w)

Knueel adoring thee, the Timeless, in tho

flame that measnres Time.”

Cf. R. V. I. 60, the hymn to tho sun- god (Siryn) which more fally recalls these sonorous lines.

1 This is a cloth worn round the loins and passed between the legs and tucked in behind. It differs from the langofi in reaching to the kuces.

274 THE FOUR PERIODS OF RELIGIOUS LIFE.

sheet without suture, over his shoulders, (4). A small cap for his hend. He should bathe before sunrise, wearing only the sacred thread, the girdle of minja, and the langofit. He first takes up a little water in his right hand, saying: “I pray that any fault 1 have committed may be put away from me.”! After which he throws the water uway. With this intention his ablutions are entered upon. .Then he rubs himself all over with earth, and if he be in a river, he dips three times, otherwise, he pours water over himself thrice and rubs his body all over with his hands. He then pronounces the name of God, and taking water three times in the hollow of his hand sips a little and begins to repeat certain prayers, at the conclusion of which he continues sprinkling water upon his head. He next closes his nostrils with two fingers and dashing water over his face, repeats other prayers and dips or throws water over himself thrice. Then wetting both his hands, he sprinkles his forehead, chest and both shoulders seven times, and taking up water with joined hands, casts it towards the sun eight times, repeating special prayers, and sips some water thrice. He next performs the prdnudyédma as described in the sec- tion ou the Patafijala system. The ablutions are meritorious in degree according to their performance in the following order—in a river, a tank, a well, or a house, He thenclothes himself. If he be a follower of Rima, he marks his forehead horizontally with ashes; if of Krishna,’ he draws the sectarial mark in twelve places, viz., on his forehead, his breast, his navel, the right and left sides thereof, his right and left shoulders, the two lobes of his ears, his loins, the crown of his head and the throat. The clay of the Ganges is considered the most efficacious for this pur- pose but saffron and the like are also used. A Sidra marks his forehead with only a circle. After this he takes his staff ond slings across his shoulders the deer-skin and occupics himself with the Sandhyé, which consists of certain religious exercises, sprinkling and sipping water, and the like Next comes the lighting of the fire and certain burnt offerings are made which is called the Homa sacrifice.

When these ceremonies are concluded, he goes to his, teacher and gains merit by waiting upon him aud reading the Vedas. At midday, the

1 The words are— 3 p. 185. graaissraar aifa gar zea ad | $8 Both are incarnations of Vishnu : e a oe Rama being the seventh, the hero of the wee UPC ae AEINAST tt Ramayana; and Kyishna, the eighth, the “ Whatever evil I may have consciously hero of the Mahévharata, or unconsciously committed, I make this % Those rites aro performed at morn- libation to Yakshma, that the fault may ing, mid-day, and evening.

he forgiven,’—Brahmana sarvasva, \

TNE FOUR PERIODS OF RELIGIOUS LIFE. 275

ablution and the ceremonies aforesaid are repeated with some variation and some increase in their namber. When these are over he sets out begging alms and solicits from three, five, or seven houses, but avoids a Sidra. After cooking a sufficient meal he carries it to his teacher and with his permission, eats it. He precedes his meal with prayers and a few cere- Monies and eats in silence and then repeats other prayers. When it is ‘near dusk, he again performs the Sandhyd and Homa rites and occupies himself with reading. After a watch of the night has elapsed, he sleeps upon the ground, making his couch of straw or a tiger’s skin or deer- skin or the like. He should avoid honey, betel-leaf, and perfumes. He should shave his head, keeping’‘a tuft only, but the hair of the other parts of the body should be suffered to grow. He should not use collyrium nor anoint himself with oil, and should abstain from singing, dancing: and gaming. He shouid not kill any animal nor have any commerce with women nor eat of anything not tasted first by his teacher. He should abstain from falsehood, anger, avarice and envy, and not defile his tongue by speaking ill of any one though he deserve it, and make his days meri- torious by practices of piety. In prayer he should turn to the east or horth and he shonld not look towards the sun in its rising or setting. Some pass forty-eight ycars in tho Brahmacharya stage, allowing twelve years for the study of each Veda. Some take only five years, and others till the Vedas are learnt. Others again spend their lives in this manner and undergo austerities in the hope of final liberation. The Second Period is the Gdrhasthya, or a state in which the duties of & householder are observed and the person so engaged is called Grthastha, When the Brahmachdérin has completed his studies, if he feels called to the Yeligious life and his heart is estranged from the world, nothing can More conduce to his welfare than the endeavour to attain eternal bliss, but if he has no such vocation, he should seek the consent of - his teacher tnd, having obtained permission, return to his father’s house. He then puts away all but his sacred thread, but continues the oblations and some Other ceremonies, the number of the oblations being the same as during his Period of pupilage as Brahmachdrin. If he be a Bréhman, he wears a turban, and a sheet eight cubits in length and two in breadth. is put on in the fashion of a loin-cloth, one end being passed between his legs and fastened behind to the waist-piece, and the other end brought forward and tied similarly in front. Another sheet, five cubits long and two broad, is worn over the shoulders, and this may have a suture. A householder of other castes wears different garments. He now marries in the manner that shall be presently described. The householder repeats certain prayers and thus performs the

3

276 TIE FOUR PERIODS OF RELIGIOUS LIFE.

Homa sacrifice. He takes in his hand a stick of pipal or pulis wood, span in length and burns it in the Homa fire. Anothor stick of the same kind is taken and passed into the fire and reserved, and when the next Homa takes place, this stick is burnt and another like the first is scorched and reserved, and this is continued till the time of the Agni-hotra.! This is a special kind of Homa or oblation. A pipal stick is set alight by means of two other sticks and a cord forcibly worked by the hand, and the fire is placed in three round earthen vessels. The figure of a tortoise is then made of a ser and-a-quarter of rice-flour, and the three portions are cooked in one lump and dressed with oil, and part of this is thrown into the three fires as an oblation to the deities, and the remainder is given to Bréhmans. One of the three portions of the sacrificial fire is reserved, and throughout bis whole life, the daily Homa oblation is made with that fire; the oblations cast into the fire in the name of the deities consist of any barley, rice, clarified batter, milk, wheat, that may be available, and once every fifteen daysin the first degree of the moon’s course he carries out the ceremony as before. The ceremony of the Agni-hotva may not take place till the period has elapsed between the fourth day after his marriage and that on which the bride leaves her father’s house (to join her husband).* With the exception of the Siadra and the Miechchha, the rest of the people come generally under this second denomination. Four gharis before day- break, the householder awakes and passes some little time on his bed in prayer. He divides his day into eight portions, thus profitably employing his time.

First, when the rays of the sun appear, he refreshes his sight with its lustre, and next by looking upon fire, water, gold, a just prince, a Brah- man, a cow, and clarified butter. If none of these eight be present, he must look upon the palms of bis hands, and proceed to wash his mouth and perform the Sandhyd ceremonies, The second portion of his time he must employ in study and occupy himself iv the interpretation of the Vedas and other branches of knowledge. The third he spends in attendance on his prince, and engages in state affairs. The fourth is occupied with his own household. The fifth, which is about the entry of noon, he spends in ablutions and the Sandhyd ceremonies, and taking up water in both hands, offers it to the deities, the great Rishis and (the manes of) his ancestors, and repeats certain prayers. This libation is called tarpana. During tho

lt This is a Vedio oblation to Agnt, chiefly of milk, oil and sour gruel ; there are two kinds, nitya, or of constant ob- ligation, and kdémy¢, or optional.

% This is the true interpretation of the sentence, asl ivarn from a Brohman pun-

dit, Abul Fazl’a language is terse to ob- scurity without a knowledge of the sub- jects he treats of. The Agni-hotra cere- mony cannot be performed till after mar- riage, and the presence of the wife is ® necessary part of it.

.

FOUR PERIODS OF RELIGIOUS LIFE. 277

sixth, he prays to Vishnu, Mahddeva, the Sun, Durga, and Ganeéa. This is called Deva-pujé, or worship of the gods, as will be more fully described hereafter. In the seventh, he casts into the fire some of his food as an offering to the gods, and makes the Homa sacrifice. Next fol- lows the Atithi-piijd (or the religious reception of a guest). He waits expectantly for any hungry person, and when he meets him, trerts him with respect and satisfies his need, after which he himself eats, and this act is called the Vaisvadeva-pujé (or offering to all deities). A Braéhman obtains his food in the following way. When the husbandman has reap- ed his field and the poor have gleaned their fill, the Brihman then fol- lows in quest, and takes what h¥ can find, and if he does not feel content: with this, he may receive from his own people; and if this is insuflicient, he may accept whatever is given to him without solicitation by another Brihman, a Kshatriya, or a Vaigya. If this is not his choice, he may beg ; and if he will not submit to this, he may cultivate land. Trade is consi- dered more objectionable. A Brahman should not keep more than twelve days’ supply of food, but to others an abundance is permitted, as has been explained. In the eighth, he listens to the recital of the lives of former holy men and performs the ceremonies of the Homa and San- dhyd. Jf he is bungry, he takes his meal, He then occupies himself till the first watch of the night, in studying works of philosophy and reading the lives of ancient sages, after which he goes to rest. Such are the means by which he profitably employs his day and night. Other cere- monies performed during times of eclipse and festivals, are numerous. Those practised by the Kshatriyas and Vaisyas who follow their special Occupations, are fewer as shall’be presently described.

The third period is that of the Vinaprastha or anchorite, a name given also to the person so engaged. This is forbidden to a Siidra.

When one (of the other castes) arrives at old age, or has a grandson, he may wisely give up the management of his household to his son or toa relation, abandon worldly concerns, and leaving the city, retire into the desert. He may there build himself a hermitage, and putting away the outward pleasures of sense, practise mortification of his body in preparation for his last journey. If his wife, through affection, desire to accompany him, he may suffer it and not deny her, but he must resist all carnal inclinations. Here he preserves the sacred fire of his daily sacrifice and clothes himself with the leaves of trees or with skins, and he may wear a coarse loin-cloth. He should never cut his hair or his nails and morn- ing, noon, and evoning ho should perform the prescribed ablutions and the Sandhyd, Like tho Grihustha, he should perform the Huma sacrifice morn- ing and evening, but his ablutions are three times more numerous, in as

36 2

278 FOUR PERIODS OF RELIGIOUS LIFE.

much as he performs them ten times to the other’s three. Ho must always keep his head bowed down and follow the instructions given in the Pitafijala system and carefully control the emotions of the spirit. He - should employ his time in reading the Vedas, sleep only at night, and lie on the bare ground. During the four months of the hot season he sits between five fires, lighting four about him, and having the sun burning over head. During the four months of the rains he should live upon a stage sustained by four poles, so that he may not be in danger from a flood nor injure minute animals by his movements, nor must he protect himself from the weather. During the four months of the cold season, he should pass the night sitting in cold water. He should always observe the Chan- driyarna fast and eat only at night. He is permitted to keep a store of food sufficient for a year and should accept nothing from others, living on grain and gathering wild fruits that have fallen. He eats nothing that is cooked, but he may moisten his food. If he can obtain naught else, he may beg of other anchorites, and failing them, he may go into the town to seek the necessaries of life but he must not remain there.

If he is unable to live in this manner, he abandons all sustenance and journeys onwards to the east or north till his bodily powers are exhausted, or he throws himself into fire or water in self destruction, or casts himself down from a precipice and thus ends his life. They consider that heaven is the reward of this course and final liberation is dependent on the profession of asceticism. What is understood by some as mukti, or final liberation, is, that in a former birth, this stage of abandonment of the world had been attained.

The fourth period is Sannydsa, which is an extraordinary state of austerity that nothing can surpass, and which when duly carried out is rewarded by final liberation. Such a person His Majesty calls Sannydst.!

After the completion of the third stage, and the habit of self-denial in. all sensual pleasures is acquired, the disciple first obtains the per- mission of his teacher and then quits his wife, shaves his head, beard, and the hair of his face and abandons all worldly concerns. His teacher pre- sents him with a loin-cloth aud some covering and accepts a trifle in return. He does not occupy himself with reading, but applies himself entirely to spiritual contemplation. He passes his life alone in the wilds, performs his ablutions morning, noon, and evening, and is scrupulous in self-purification and practises the duties described in the Patafijala system, carrying them out after his own method. He performs the Sandhyé and then repeats from one to twelve thousand times the word Om, which is

1 ‘The term Suinydsin was applied many conturios before his Majesty was born.

DIVINE WORSHIP. 279

the beginning of the Vedas. At the fourth ghart before the close of day, he goes into the city, and repcats the name of God, begging at three, five, or seven houses of Brahmans, but does not take more than a handful of food from each. If they put it into his hand he straightway eats it, or if they throw it on the ground, he takes it up with his mouth or gathers it in acloth and eats it after cleansing it ina stream. He then retires to a ‘place where there is no sign of the cooking of food or lighting of a fire. He avoids a Stidra or a Miechchha and if he is not quickly supplied with food, he does not wait. After eating he directs his eyes to the tip of his nose or to his brow and passes.a brief space in meditation. He walks with his head and feet bare and’’ does not remain in any one place. If he is compelled to pass through a city or village, he does not remain in the former more than three days nor in the latter more than one. In the rains he abides in one spot and thus is his life passed. Some adopt the course of religious abandonment both during the first and second periods, Some say that the first period extends to twenty-five years, and the same is allowed for the three other periods. The second is lawful to all the four castes; the ‘first and third to all but Suidras, but the fourth is exclusively for Brahmans.

Worsite OF THE Deity.

The Hindu sages declare that whoever seeks to do the will of God, must devote certain works exclusively to purposes of worship and the first six of the nine schools already alluded to, comprise this under four heads.

The First is—

Is’vara-Pdus, or Divine Worship.

Since according to their belief, tho Supreme Deity can assume an elemental form without defiling the skirt of the robe of omnipotence, they first make various idols of gold aud other substances to represent this ideal and gradually withdrawing the mind from this material worship, they become meditatively absorbed in the ocean of His mysterious Being, Sixteen ceremonies conduce to this end. After the performance of the Homa and Sandhyd obligations, the devotee sits down facing the east or north, and taking up a little rice and water sprinkles (the idol) with the intention of beginning the worship of God. Then follows the Kalusa-pijd

L Tho duties of these periods may be read iu Wilson’s Vishnu Parana. Chapters IX to XL£I, and in Manu.

N

280 , DIVINE WORSHIP,

or pitcher-worship. The water of the pitcher which is required for the ceremony is venerated after a special manner.! He next performs the Sankha-pijd, wherein the white shell is venerated which is filled with . water to be poured over the idol. Next follows the Ghantd-pijd, in which the gong is plastered with sandalwood unguent and worship- ped. When these are concluded, he sprinkles a little rice with the intention of soliciting the manifestation of the deity. Such is the first of the sixteen ceremonies. (2). The intention is made that ‘the prayer of the supplicant may be accepted. A throne of metal or other substance is placed as a seat for the deity. (3). He pours water into a vessel that he may wash his feet when he comes, it being the custom of the country to wash the feet of superiors when they enter a house. (4). He throws down water thrice on the ground to represent the rins- ing of the mouth by that mystical being, as it is also a custom of this country among the more refined classes to offer this service to a superior before meal-time. (5). Sandal, flowers, betel, and rice are thrown into water and thus offered. (6). The idol is lifted up with its seat and carried to another place. With the right hand a white concheshell is held while with the left a gong is struck and the water is poured over the idol which is then washed. (7). The idol is then dried with a cloth and placed upon its throne and itis dressed in such costly robes as circumstances can furnish. (8). It is then invested with the sacred string. (9). The sectarial mark is next made in twelve places with sandal. (10.) Flowers or leaves are then strewn over it. (11). It is fumigated with perfumes. (12). A lamp.is lit with clarified butter. (13). Food according to ability is then placed on a table before the idol, which is then distributed to people as the idol’s leavings. (14). Is the Namas-kéra which isa posture of sup- plication. He repeats the praises of God with heart and tongue and falls prostrate with his. whole body like a staff. This prostration is called danda-vat (staff-like); he so prostrates himself that eight of his limbs touch the earth,—the two knees, the two hands, the forehead, the nose, and the right and left cheeks. This is called Sdshtdngd, (eight merabers). Many perform one of these two obeisances in supplication before the great. (15). Circumambulating the idol several times. (16). Standing like a slave before it, and taking leave.

In each of these ceremonies, prayers are repeated and particular acts are performed. Some consider only five of these ceremonies from the

1A twig of each of the following the Mangifera Indica are placed in the sacred trees: Ficus religiosa, Ficus indt- pitcher of water as an oblation. ca, Ficus glomerata, Mimosa albida and

SACRIFICE. 281

7th to the 13th, as imperative, others practise more; except a Sidra and a Sannydsin, all others perform this worship thrice daily.

Worship is of six kinds: (1). Inthe heart. (2), Making the sun a means of divine adoration. (3). Causing fire to serve the purpose of spiritual recollection. (4). Worshipping in presence of water, (5). Cleaning a spot of ground as a place for worship. (6). Making an idol ‘a representative object of prayer. They also make images of those who have attained to God and account their veneration as a means of salvation.

The Second kind is—

‘a Yasya,! or Sacrifice.

By this the favour of the deities is obtained and it becomes the means of securing the blessing of God. The term Jég is also used. Paka-yajna (simple or domestic sacrifice) is making the Homa in the name of the deities and bestowing charity before taking food. This is variously per- formed. Japa-yajaais the muttering of incantations and the names of God. These two, like the first, ave of daily practice. Vidhi-yajra or ceremonial act of worship is of numerous kinds, in each of which important condi- tions are prescribed, large sums of money expended and many animals Sacrificed. One of these is the Asvamedha, or horse-sacrifice, whick is performed by sovereign princes. When its necessary preparations are completed, a white horse having the right ear black, is brought out and Consecrated by certain incantations, and (being turned loose) it is followed in its march by an army for conquest which in & short time subdues the world and the king of every territory (which it enters) tenders submis- sion and joins the victorious forces. They pretend that whoever performs this sacrifice a hundred times, becomes lord of heaven. Many are said to have attained this rank and marvellous legends are told of them. If he cannot perform that number he obtains an eminent place in that region*® Another is the Rija-siya-yajna, one of the conditions at- tached to which is the presence of all the princes of the world at the great festival, each of whom is appointed to a@ particular duty, and the

1 In Hindi. Jagna, and Jig. Cf. Miil- his train, the horse was sometimes im-

ler, Hist, Sausk. Lit. p. 208, and ff. In Péka-yajna the former word is not to be taken in the sonse of cooking bnt signi- fies smali or good.

& After the return of the king, if suo- Cessful, with the vanquished princes in

?

molated, after the festival of rejoicing. Failure in conquest was followed by contempt and ridicule of overweening pretension. The antiqnity of this sac- rifice goes back to Vedic times. Albirdni briefly describes it in Chap LXV.

232 ; ALMSGIVING.

service at the hanquet can be performed only by them. Whoever has twice inaugurated this ceremony becomes lord of heaven, and many (are said) to have obtained this happiness. There are manifold kinds of these sacri- fices, but the two herein mentioned must suffice.

The Third kind is—

D&na, or Alms giving.

There are numerous forms of this meritorious precept and various are the modes by which the provision for man’s last journey is secured, The following sixteen are accounted the most important :—

(1). Wulé-dina or the weighing of the person against gold, silver and other valuables. (2). IHiranyagarbha-déna: an idol of Brahma is fashioned of gold, having four faces in each of which are two eyes, two ears, a mouth and nose. It must have four hands, and the rest of the mem- bers are after the form of men. It must be 72 fingers high and 48 in breadth. Its weight may vary between a minimum of 33 tolahs and 4 mdshas and a maximum of 3,410 tolahs. It is decked with jewels, and incantations are pronounced over it. (3). Brahmdnda-déna, or alms of the egg of Brahma! An egg is made of gold in two parts which when joined together have an oval shape. Its weight varies between a minimum of 66 tolahs and 7 mdshas and a maximum of 3,633 tolahs and 4 mdshas. Its length and breadth may not be less than twelve fingers nor greater than one hundred. (4). Kalpa-taru-déna. Thisis the name of a tree? (taru) which is one of the fourteen treasures brought out of the sea, as will be related. A similar tree is made of gold, and birds are represented sitting on its branches. It should weigh not less than 12 folahs, and the maximum weight as above. (5). Go-sahasra-ddna, is the alms of a thousand cows with one bull, having the tips of their horns, according to ability, plated with gold or silver and their humps covered with copper, with bells and tassels of yak’s hair round their necks, and pearls in their tails. (6), Liranya-kdmadhenu-dina.® A golden cow and calf are made ; they may be of three kinds; the first weighs 3,410 tolas ; the second, the half of this weight, and the third weighs one-fourth. (7). Hiranydsva-ddna. A golden horse is fashioned weighing from ten tolahs to 3,633 tolahs and four mdshas. (8). Hiranydsva-ratha. A chariot of gold of the first of the above-mentioned weights is made with

1 See p. 11 of this Vol. has calved. A’éma-dhenu is the cow of § Of Indra’s paradise, granting all de- plenty, belonging to the sage Vaisishtha, sires. ; yielding all that is desired. for Hira-

3 Dhenu is a milch-cow, or a cow that nya-garbhe, See p. 163.

ALMSGIVING. 283

four wheels and from four to eight horses weighing from ten to 6,606 tolahs and cight mdshus. (9). Hemahasti-ratha-dana is an alms of a chariot of gold drawn by four elephants. Its weight is from sixteen tolahs and eight mdshas to the maximum aforesaid. (10). Paticha-ldugala-ddna is a gift of jive ploughs of gold of the above weight. (11.) Dhara-dana, is a figure of the surface of the earth made of gold, upon which are represented mountains, ‘woods and seas, weighing not less than sixteen folahs, eight mdshas, and not more than 3,633 folahs. (12) Visva-chakra-déna. A complete radiate of eight petals is made of gold representing the entire dome of the heavens, and is of four weights, viz. 3,333 tolahs, four mdshas: half of the above: one- fourth: 66 ¢olaks, 8 mdshas. (18). Kalpa-lataddna is in the shape of a Creeper. Ten tendrils are made of gold, weighing from sixteen to 3,330 tolahs, four mdshas. (14). Sapta-sdgara-ddna, The seven seas ave represen- ted in gold weighing not less than twenty-three tolahs, four mdshas, and not more than the weight above given. The length and breadth of each of these are twenty-one fingers, or the half thereof. The first sea is filled with salt; the second, with milk; the third, with clarified butter ; the fourth, with Molasses; the fifth, with butter-milk ; the sixth, with sugar; the seventh with Ganges-water. (15). Ratna-dhenu-dana, the representation of a cow with a calf made up of jewels. (16). Mahdbhuta-ghata-ddna,!’ is a repre- Sentation in gold of the figure of a man surmounted by the head of an elephant, which is called Ganesa, Its weight is from sixteen tolahs, eight mdshas to 3,330 tolahs, four mdshas. ‘

In some works the first or T’uld-ddna, the weight whereof should be not less than 106 tolahs, eight mishas, nor more than 833 tolahs, four mdshas, is alone given, and the remaining forms are omitted. There is also some difference of opinion regarding the distribution. Some give only to the Achérya or teacher who shares the alms with others, while some bestow it also upon other Bidbmans.

For each of these forms of charity, there are various injunctions. Although no distinct season is fixed, they are regarded as of more officncy in times of ec]ipse and when the sun enters Capricorn and on some other occasions. Strange legends are told of them and of their results, as for instance regarding the first kind, if the giver weighs himself against gold, he will remain in pavadise for a thousand million kalpas and advance from

1 Mahd-bhuta signifies a ‘huge crea- ture’ and ‘ ghafa’ is the frontal sinus of an elephant. Ganesa was the son of Siva and Parvati and is invoked at the beginning of undertakings as removing Obstucles, He is reprosented as a short

3

pot-bellied man frequently mounted on a rat or attonded by one, and to denote his sagacity, has the ead of an olophant, with, however, but one task.-—Munier Williams,

284: AVATALAS.

degree to degreo of beatitude, and when he re-assumes human form will become a mighty monarch. The Fourth kind is—

Spdppaa, or Ceremonies in honour of deceased ancestors.

The charity is given in the name of deceased ancestors and is of vari- ous kinds, but four are specially observed: (1). On the day of decease and its anniversary. (2). On the first day of the first quarter of the new moon. (3). On the sixteenth lunar day of the month of Kudr, (Scpt.

Oct.). (4). Bestowing charity in a place of worship in the name of the deceased.

The manner of performing it is to bestow money and gifts in kind, dressed and undressed, ou Brahmans in the name of father, grandfather and great grandfather including their wives, and in the same way on the three directly ascending male ancestors of the mother and their wives. All four castes may perform this ceremony.

When these fonr duties of worship, sacrifice, alms-giving and com- memoration of the deceased, as now described, are performed, the wor- ship of God is accounted to be perfectly carried out, and without them it is not effccted.

AVATARAS, or ” Incarnations of the Deity.

They believe that ‘the Supreme Being in the wisdom of His counsel, assumes an elementary form of a special character for the good of the creation, and many of the wisest of the Hindus accept this doctrine. Sach a complete incarnation is called Pirndvatdra, and that principle which in some created forms is scintillant with the rays of the divinity and bes- tows extraordinary powers is called Ansdvatéva or partial incarnation. These latter will not be here considered. F

Of the first kind they say that in the whole four Yugas, ten manifes- tations will take place, and that nime have up to the present time appeared.

MartsyAvatARa, a or Pish-Incarnation. The Deity was herein manifested under the form of. a fish. They say that in the Dravida! country at the extremity of the Dekhan in the city

1 The Coromandel Cvuast from Madras | southward where the Tamil language

THE TORTOISE-INCARNATION. 285

of Bhadravati, duving the Satya Yuga on the eleventh lunar day of the month of Phdlguna (Feb.-March), Réijé Manu, having withdrawn himself from all worldly concerns, and being then ten hundred thousand years of age, lived in the practice of great austerities. He was performing his ablutions on the banks of the river Kritamala when a fish came into his hand and said “ preserve me.” It remained in his hand a day and night and as it increased in size, he put it into a cup, and when it grew larger, he placed it in a pitcher. When the latter could not contain it, he put it into a well and thence transferred it to a Jake and after- wards to the Ganges. As the Ganges could not hold it, he gave it place in the ocean, and when it filled the ocean, the Rajé recognised the origin of the miracle and worshipped it and prayed for a revelation. He heard the following answer: “Iam the Supreme Being. I have assumed the form of this creature for thy salvation and that of a few of the vlect. After seven days the world will be destroyed and a flood shall cover the earth. Get thou into a certain ark with a few of the righteous together with the divine books and choice medicinal herbs and fasten the ark to this horn which cometh out of me.” The deluge continued one million, seven hundred and twenty-eight thousand years after which it subsided.!

Korauckvatcra, or Tortoise- Incarnation.

In the Satya Yuga in the light half of the month of Kérttika (Oct.- Nov.), on the twelfth lunar day, the Creator manifested himself in the shape of a tortoise. They relate that the deities wished to obtain the water of immortality after the manner of butter by churning the ocean

of milk. Instead of a churning-stick, they used the largest of the

is spoken. The Kyitaméla occurs in the Manu collects the seeds of existing

Vishnu Puréna; but the Karma reads Rituméla: according to Wilson neither name is verified.*

1 The story is told in the Mahabharata with reference to the Matsya Purina as its authority which would imply that the poem is later than the Paréna, bat according to Wilson, the great epic is much older than any extant Parana, and the simplicity of the story in the Mahé- bhérata is of much more antique com- plexion than the extravagance of the . actual Matsya Porana. In the former,

37

things in the ark, explained in the latter as effected by the powor of Yoga. In the latter, the groat serpents come to serve as cords to fasten the ark to the horn of the fish ; in the former, a cable of ropes is used. As the ark is borne on the waters, Manu enters into con- verse-with the fish, and its replies which concern the creation, regal dynasties and the duties of the differont orders, form the subject of the Porana.— Wilson, V. P.

286 THE ROAR-INCARNATION.

mountains, Mandara. From its excessive weight the mountain sunk into the ocean, and great were their difficulties. The Deity assumed this shape and bore up the monntain on bis back and the gods obtained their desire.

By this miraculous act, fourteen priceless objects were brought up from the sea:—(1). Lakshmt, the goddess of fortune, appeared as a bride and thus a source of happiness to all creatures was obtained. (2). Kaus- tubha-mani or the wonderful jewel Kaustubha, of extraordinary lustre and in value beyond price. (3). Parijdtaka-vriksha, the miraculous tree Parijdtaka! whose flowers never fade and whose fragrance fills the uni- verse. Some say that it grants all desives. It is called also Kalpa- vrtksha’ (4). Sura, (the goddess of) wine. (5). Dhanvantan, the phy- sician (of the gods) who could heal the sick and raise the dead to life. In his right hand, he held a leech and in his left (a branch of) the myrobalan tree. His Majesty considers that these two should be regarded separate- ly and the number of treasures be accounted sixteen. (6). Chandra-mani, the (moon-gem or) world-illumining moon. (7). Kéma-dhenu, the mira- culous cow which gave forth from her udders the gratification of every wish. (8). Airdvata, the white elephant (of Indra) with four tusks. (9). Sankhe, the white conch-shell of wondrous sound that bestowed victory on whomso- ever possessed it. (10). Visha, deadly poison. (11). Amrita, the water of life. (12). Rambhd, the nymph, beautiful and sweet-dispositioned.* (13). Asva, the horse with eight heads. (14). Sdrangadhanus, or the bow Sdranga of which the unerring arrow carried to any distance.

After producing these inestimable treasures, the tortoise descended into the earth and is believed still to exist.

Virknivarira, or Boar-Incarnation.

In the Satya Yuga, on the day of the full moon in the month of Rivttika (Oct.-Nov.) in the city of Brahmdvarta® near Nimishéra® and

1 The coral tree, Erythrina Indica, one of the five trees of Paradise.

% Commonly Kalpa-taru, the latter be- ing synonymous with vriksha, a tree.

8 According to Monier Williams, he held a cup of Amrita in his hands. Dhan- vantari is also the name of the author of the Ayur-Veda,

4 A nymph of Indra’s paradise, some- times regarded as a form of Lakshmi,

and popularly accepted as a type of female beauty. The order and namber of these ocean treasures varies in dif- ferent accounts. Seo the Vishnu Purine on the churning of the ocean. I, IX.

5 See p. 33. According to Mann (1I. 17) it is a district between the Sarasvati and Drisadvati rivers.

6 Or Naimisha from S. nimisha, & twinkling; the name of a forest and

THE MAN-LION-INCARNATION. 287

Ayodhya, this manifestation took place. One of the Daityas named Hiranydksha! had passed a long period in the practice of austerities and the worship of God, One day the Deity appeared to him in visible form and asked bim what he desired. Rejoiced at these gracious words, he enumerated many noxious animals and prayed for exemption from their Shortly after he obtained his wishes, and dispossessing Indra of the sovereignty of heaven, committed its charge to one of his own kindred. The deities and Brahma hastened to Vishnu and besought his aid. As in the request for exemption the name of the boar had been omitted, they received this answer, “I will manifest myself under that form and deprive him of life.”

Soon afterwards, Vishnu took this shape and entering his capital, des-

injury and that he might be monarch of the whole universe.

troyed him. ‘This is pointed out as having taken place at Soron.2 The earth was again peopled witlz the virtuous and Indra recovered his sover- eignty of the world above.

Tho period of this manifestation was a thousand years.

Nara-SINHa, or Man-Lion-Incarnation.

This was a form from the head to the waist like a lion and the lower parts resembling a man, and was manifested in the Satya Yuga on the fourteenth of the light half of the month of Vaisékha (April-May), ic the city of Hiranyapéra now commonly called Hindaun® near the metro-

shrine, celebrated as the residence of cortain Rishis to whom Sauti related the Mahdbhdrata The district was so-called because the sage Gaura-mukha destroy- ed an army of Asuras in a twinkling, Monier Williams, who refers to the Ma- hébh. Adi., p. 7275, Vana., p. 6079. It ia called Nimkitir in the I. G., a town in the Sitapir Dist., Oudh, on the left bank of the Gamti, 20 miles from Sita- pir town. Lat. 27° 20° 55” N. and long. 80° 31’ 40’. It is described as a place of great sanctity with numerous tanks and temples. In one of the tanks, Rama ig said to have washed away his sin of slaying a Bsihman in the person of Ravana, tho ravisher of Sité.

1 Pawn-cyod, an epithet also of Siva;

¥

in the Vishnu Parana the two sons of Diti, are Hiranyakasipu (clothed in gold) and Hiranydksha (golden-eyed).

& Inthe Etah district, N. W. P. It iv a town of great antiquity according to the I. G. and was originally known as Ukala-Kashetra, but after the destruction of Hiranyaksha, the name was changed to Snkara-Kshetra (beneficent-region). Devout Hindus after visiting Mathurd, go on to Soron to bathe in the Burhgang& which is here tined with handsome tem- ples and ghdts. The I. G. incorrectiyv gives the Daitya’s name as Hiranya- kasyapa, and Ukala is perhaps for Utkala or Utkara.

8 In tho Jaipur State, situated in 26° 44’ N., and long. 77° 8’ EF, on the old

288 THE DWARF-INCARNATION,

polis of Agra. They say that Hiranyakasipu of the Daitya race spent many long years in a life of austerity until the Deity appeared to him and asked his desire. His first prayer was that his death might not take place by night nor by day, and next, he begged protection against all noxious animals which he severally named, and, lastly, that he might obtain sovereignty over the realms above and below. His request was granted. The deities yielded submission to him and the world was filled with the un- righteous. The chief spirits implored aid of Vishnu through Brahma and their prayer was heard. It is said that Hirapyakasipu had a son called Prahlada who, like the deities, worshipped the Supreme God and followed the path of truth in spite of his father, who though he subjected his son to much persecution, was unable to turn him from that course. One even- ing his father asked him where the Supreme Being dwelt. He replied that he was omnipresent and to explain his*meaning, pointed to a pillar in which also he declared the Deity to be. The king in folly smote it with his sword, and by a miracle from heaven, the above form came forth from it and tore him to pieces at the interval of time between night and day, and his death was caused by an animal of a specially-created type. Itis said that this divine form asked Prakldda to choose some hoon. Tho great-souled youth prayed only for final liberation (jivan- muktt), which is eternal life freed from the defilement of corporal existence and from the bonds of joy and sorrow. This manifestation continued one hundred years.!

VAMANA, or

Dwarf-Incarnation.

In the Tretd Yuga, on the twelfth day of the light half of the month of Bhédrapada (H. Bhddox, Aug.—Sept.) in the city of Sonbhadrd on the banks of the Narbadd, this new manifestation was born of Aditi in the house of Kasyapa, the son of Marichi,? the son of the legendary Brahma.

route from Agra to Mhow, 71 miles S. W. which gave occasion to it. Wilson re- of the former, once on extensive city gards this as another instance of a brief and now mnch decayed. The Mahabhir reference to popular legends frequent in fair held annually, is attended by as many that Paréna. It is referred to, he ob- ag 100,000 pilgrims. ff. G. serves, in several other Paranas, but he 1 Four chapters of the Vishnu Pa- had himself met with the story in detail réna, from the17th to the 21st, are taken only in the Bhigavata. up with the history of the legend, but 2 The variant in the note more ap- the death of Hiranyskasipu is mention- proximates to the true name than that

ed without the immediate circumstances chosen in the text. Maricbi was one of

INCARNATION OF RAMA WITH THE AXE. 289

This incarnation continued a thousand years. Bali of the Daitya race underwent an austere penance to obtain the sovereignty of the three worlds. The Bountiful Giver of all desires revealed himself and granted his wish and Bali thus obtained a mighty dominion. Having subdued the throned princes of the gods, he left them in possession of their prin- cipalities. He performed many sacrifices, but neglected to present to the deities their customary offerings. The latter, through the intercession of Brahma, implored Vishnu to dethrone him who comforted them by revealing the issue of events. In the same year this moon-orb dis- played its radiance, and when the child grew in wisdom, in conformity with rule and custom he was placed under the tuition of the sage Bharadwdja. With his preceptor he attended the sacrifice which the king had inaugurated at Kurukshetra, and after the royal custom, Bali asked him what boon he desired. He replied, “I ask of thee as much ground ase I can cover with three steps.” The king in amazement rejoined, “ Is 80 slight a gift craved of a monarch so illustrious and powerful 2”? When at last, after some debate he consented, the first step was so great that it covered the earth and the lower regions. The second measured the extent of the celestial world. The Rajd delivered himself up in bonds in com- mutation of the third step. On account of the natural goodness of the Rija’s disposition, after depriving him of his universal sovereignty, he conceded to him the rule of the nether world.!

Paragurdmavarcra, or Incarnation of Rama with the axe. In the house of Jamadagni a Brahman, and of his wife Renuki, during the Treté Yuga, on the third day of the light half of the month

of Vaisékha, ‘in the village of Rankatta # near Agra, this human form wis born.

1 This is briofty alladed to in the Ist Chap of the V. P., bat fuller details are

the Prajipatis-and the father of KaSya- pa. One of the most sacred spots on

the Narbadé to this day is a site near Broach city where Bali performed the horse-sacrifice. According to the J. G., on the doubtful authority of the Rewé Parana (Rew4 being another name for the Narbada), the sanctity of the Ganges will cease in the Samvat year 1951 (1895), while that of the Narbaddé wili porpe- taally endure.

found, according to Wilson, in the Bha- gavatn and in the Karma, Matsya and Vamanna Parinas. Bharadwaja was one of the seven Rishis.

8 ‘This is probably a corruption of aratyaka, a forest, wherein his hermi- tage was built to which he took his

brido, the daughter of Rajé Prasonajit.

290 INCARNATION OF RAMA WITH THE AXE.

Karttavirya of the Daitya!’ race, who had neither hands nor feet, was at that time on the throne. In great affliction on account of his misfor- tune, he abandoned the world and retired to the Kailasa mountain to undergo penance. Mahideva vouchsafing his favour, gave him a thousand arms and at his prayer bestowed on him the sovereignty of the three worlds. But he oppressed the deities for which reason they implored his destruc- tion, and their supplication was heard. They say that Jamadagni was des- cended from Mahadeva and Renuka from Aditi mother of the deities (Adityas). She had five sons, the fifth being Paragurama. He was instructed by Mahadeva in the Kailésa mountain, and Jamadagni his father worshipped in the desert. Karttavirya was one day engaged in the pastime of hunting and he happened to pass by the hermitage of Jama- dagni and sought there to satisfy hig hunger and thirst. The hermit brought forth food and drink, besides jewels and valuable presents befitting a monarch. The king was amazed and refused to touch them till he was informed concerning their possession. He replied that Indra, the ruler of the celestial regions, had bestowed upon him the cow Kdmo- dhenu which supplied him with all that he required. The king seized with avarice, demanded the cow. He answered that he could not comply with his request without the sanction of Indra, and that no earthly power could take possession of it. The king enraged determined to use force, but notwithstanding all the troops he could collect and his hostile attempts, he could not prevail. At length one night he came secretly and slew Jama- dagni, but found no trace of the cow. Renuka sent for her son Parasu- rama, and performing the funeral ceremonies of the deceased, burnt

! This is an error, probably of a copyist. He was sovereign of the Haihaya tribe descendants of Yadn from the twelfth prince of the Janar line. Of this tribe there were five great divisions, the Télojanghas, Vitihotras, Avantyas, Tun- dikeras and Jdétas. They dwelt in Cen- tral India. The capital of the first named was Mahishmati or Chali Mahes- war, etill called, according to Co). Todd Suhasra-bdéhu ki basti, ‘village of the thousand armed,’ é.¢., of Kirttavirya. (Rajasthan, I. 39, n.). These tribes must have preceded the Rajput tribes by whom their country, Malwa, Ujjain and the valley of the Narbadd, is now occupied. A remnant of the Huihuya still exists

at the top of the valley of Sohfgpir in Bhagel-khand, aware of their ancient lineage and celebrated for their valour. Their predatory connection with the Sakas, suggests their Scythian origin, which the word Haya, meaning in Sansk. @ horse, is supposed to confirm, perhaps from their nomadic habits implied in the Homeric name, Hippemolgi. Wilson hints their connection with the Huns. See his notes to Book IV, Chapters III and XI, V_ P. The Kaildsa mountain, the fabled Para- dise of Siva is placed by the Hindus, north of the Manasa lake and regarded as one of the loftiest peaks of the Hima- layas. Vide Vol. Il, 318, n. 2.

THE KRISHNA-INCARNATION. 291

herself according to the custom of her people and taid upon her son the injunction to avenge her. Paraguréma, endued with miraculous power, set out to engage the king, and twenty pitched battles took place. In the last, the king was slain and the deities recovered their sovereignty. He then collected the wealth of the universe and bestowed it in alms at a sacrificial ceremony, and then abandoning the world, retired to the obs- curity of a solitude,!

He is still believed to be living and his habitation is pointed out in the mountain Mahendra of the Konkan.

RAMAVATARA,

• Wor Réma-Incarnation.

They reJate that Ravana one of the Rdkshasas two generations in des- cent from Brahmd,? had ten heads and twenty hands. He underwent austerities for a period of ten thousand years in the Kailasa mountain and devoted his heads, one after another in this penance in the hope of obtaining the sovereignty of ‘the three worlds. The Deity appeared to him and granted his prayer. The gods were afflicted by his rale and as in the former instances, solicited his dethronement which was vouch- safed, and Rima was appointed to accomplish this end. He was accord- ingly born during the Treté Yuga on the ninth of the light hali of the month of Chaitva (March-April) in the city of Ayodhya, of Kausalya wife of Raja Dagaratha. <At the first dawn of intelligence, he acquired much learning and withdrawing from all worldly pursuits, set out journey- ing through wilds and gave a fresh beauty to his life by visiting holy shrines. He became lord of the earth and slew Ravana. He ruled for eleven thousand years and introduced just Jaws of administration.$

Krisaydvatara, or Incarnation as Krishna. More tkan four thousand years ago, Ugrasena of the Yadu race bore sway in his capital of Mathuré. His son Kansa rebelled and dethrouing

1 This fable is taken from the Mahé- by slaying Jamnadagui in Rama’s ab-

bhérata and inserted in the 7th Chapter, Book IV, of the Vishna Purdna. In this, Rama uses his axe tocut off his mother’s hend at the command of his father, who restored her again to life at his son’s re- quest. The sone of Karttavirya are there said to revenge the death of their father

sence.

% He was the son of Visravas, son of Pulastya, son of Brahmé.

8 The literature of the Réimiéyana in various languages is sufficiently well- known to dispense with a refereuce to the details of this Avatdra,

292 THE BUDDHA-INCARNATION.

his father ruled with a persecuting hand, while at the same time Jaré- sandha, Sigapéla and other princes of the Daityas exercised unbounded tyranny. The afflicted earth assuming the form of a cow, hastened with Brahm4 to Vishnu and implored their destruction. The prayer was granted and the divine commission was entrusted to Krishna. They say that the astrologers foretold to Kansa that a child would shortly be born and that his reign would be at an end. He thereupon ordered the slaugh- ter of all infants and thus each year the blood of many innocent children was shed until his sister Devaki married Vasudeva of the Yadu race. Now Kansa heard a report that Devaki’s eighth son would be the cause of his death. He therefore confined them both in prison and put to death every son that was born to them. In the beginning of the Kali Yuga, onthe eighth lunar day of the dark half of the month of Bhddrapada (Aug.— Sep.), in the city of Mathuré near the metropolis of Agra, the child was born while the guards were negligent. The fetters fell off and the doors were opened and the child spoke thus. ‘On the other side of the Jamuna, @ girl bas even now been born in the house of the cowherd Nanda, and the family are asleep. Take and leave me there and bring the girl hither.’ As Vasudeva set out to fulfil this injunction, the river became fordable and the command was obeyed. Krishna in his ninth year killed Kansa, released Ugrasena from prison and seated him on the throne. He also engaged the other tyrants and overthrew them.

He lived one hundred and twenty-five years and had 16,108 wives, each of whom gave birth to ten sons and one daughter, and each wife thought that she alone shared her husband’s bed.

Buppwivatara, or Buddha-Incarnation.

He was born of Maya in the house of Raja Sudhodana of the race of Ramachandra during the Kali Yuga, on the eighth of the light half of the month of Vaisdkha in the city of Makata.! .

1 For‘ city read ‘country.’ Magrdha is here intended, of which the capital waa R&jagriha. According to Spencer Hardy it is called Makata by the Bur- mans and Siamese, Mo-ki-to by the Chinese, and Makala Kokf by the Japa- nese. See‘ Manual of Buddhism,’ p. 140, on the Buddha’s five perceptions re-

garding the character of the period, the continent, country, family and day of Buddha-manifestations. The city of Kapilavastu is supposed to have wit- nessed the birth of the last. According to Hardy, Buddha was said to have been born “on Tnesday, the day of the full moon in the month of Wesak, the ne-

UNCLEAN THINGS. 293

They say that as many sacrifices were performed at this period and the number of animals sacrificed was very large, Vishnu willed te- appear in human form to condemn the Vedic institutions and their sacrificial rites. For this reason he became incarnate in that year and lived to the age of a hundred. Some account of him has already preceded.

Ka.kYAvaTAra, or Kalki-Incarnation.

At the close of the Kali Yuga, in the tenth of the light half of the month of Vaisékha, this birth will take place in the family of the Brah- man Vishnuyasas from the womb of his wife Yagovati in the town of Sam- bhala.!

They say that a time will come when a just prince will not be left upon the earth, iniquity will abound, grain become excessively dear, and the age of men will become shortened so that they will not live beyond thirty years, and deaths will be rife. For the remedy of these disorders, the Deity will become incarnate and renew the world in righteousness.

Some add fourteen other Avatiras, making them twenty-four, and have written works on the histories of each, relating many extraordinary legends. ;

Many men fashion images of these Avatdras in silver and gold and worship them, but the Jainas and Buddhas do not believe in the complete incarnations (Prrzdvatéras).

Unciean Truves.

.

These are,—wine, blood, semen, excrement, urine, excretions from the mouth, nose, ears and eyes, sweat, hair, detached nails, bones of animals whose flesh is forbidden, a woman in her courses, and one newly dcli- vered during the period hereinafter stated, any dead animal, forbidden food, a sweeper, an ass, a dog, (tame) swine, the dust that rises from off an ass, goat, shecp or broom, and the mud shaken out of a garment, a

kata [ Nakshatra (?)] being Wisa [ Visa- khé (?)]” But as he justly observes, it is easy to be minute when the annalist consults only his imagination.

t See Vol. IT, p. 16, n. 1. He is to appear on a white horse with a flashing sword for the final destruction of Mlech- chhas and those that love iniquity, and to re-establish rightcousness. Tho simi-

38

larity of the idea and expression to the Apocalyptic vision of the white horse and its rider will readily occar to mind and the analogy between some of these manifestations and certain scenes in the New Testament bas often been observed, and is not the result of acci- dent.

294 STATE OF PURIFICATION.

sinner guilly of the five great sins, or whoever touches such, a crow, & (tame domestic) cock, a mouse, a eunuch, the smoke from a burat corpse, & wasberman, ® hunter, a fisherman, a gamester, a spirit-seller, an execu- tioner, a tanner, a dyer, a currier, and an oilman.!

Pouristers.

Knowledge, austerity, suspension of breath (prdndydma), religious - exercises of the Sandhyé, sun-light, moon-light, five, water, air, earth, ashes, mustard-seed, wild produce of the earth, shade of a tree, the back and legs of a cow, a plough, a broom, sour things,? salt-water, mouth of a horse or goat, eating certain food, the lapse of time, milk, butter-milk, clarified butter, and the dang and urine of a cow.

SratE or PURIFICATION.

Knowledge and austerity purify the soul. When the inward person is unclean by improper food, it is purified by suppression of breath and the wild produce of the earth: a drunkard by molten glass.2 When the body is defiled by ordure, wine, blood and the like, it becomes pure by cleans- ing below the navel with earth and water, and above it with earth and water, rinsing the teeth, washing the eyes, bathing, abstaining for a day and a night from food and drink, and afterwards eating five things from a cow.* A pathway or water that has been polluted by the shadow of a Chandil (parieh) is again purified by sunlight, moonlight, and air. If the ordure of any animal falls into a well, sixty pitchers full of water must be taken out; if into a tank, a hundred pitchers; any part of o

2 Prohibitions and permissions in re- gard to food and ceremonial purification are treated in the V. Lecture of Mann’s Ordinances. Albirdni says that he was informed by Hindus that before the time of Bhiérata, the meat of cows was permitted, and cows were killed at cer- tain saorifices, and that the reason of the prohibition was their unwholesome- ness ng food. In a hot climate the inner parts of the body are cold, the nateral warmth is feeble and the digestion is so weak, that it has to be strengthened by chewing the betel-nat. The betel in- flames the bodily heat, the chalk in the betel leaves dries up everything wet, and the betel-nnt acts as an astringent

on the teeth, gums and stomach. Hence cow’s ment was forbidden as it is assen- tially thick and cold. 1I. Chapter 58.

3 Sour liquids, according to Manu, eardled milk and all produced from it and all liqnids pressed from pure flowers, roots and frnits may be drunk. V. 10. By the purifying effects “of certain food, sacrificial food is meant. Manu. V. 105, n. 5.

8 In Mann, boiling cow’s urine, milk, ghee, liqnid cow dung, or spirituous li- gnor. ‘The pasishment is for a Brah- man and is equivalent to death. XI. 91-92, and n. 3.

4 Milk, buttermilk, ghee, dung of a cow and its urine.

STATE OF PURIFICATION. 295

river, is purified by its own flow.! From oil that is defiled, the contami- nating matter is taken out and the oil is boiled. Milk cannot be purified except only when the shadow of a Chandal may have fallen upon it, in which case it becomes pure by boiling. Cotton, leaves, molasses, grain, be- come pure by the sprinkling of a little water after removing the defilement, Gold, silver, stone, vegetable produce, rope and whatever grows beneath -the earth and utensils of cane are purified by water, and if they have been defiled by unclean oil and the like, by hot water. Clothes ave puri- fied by water. Wooden vessels if defiled by the touch of a Chanddl cannot be made pure, but if touched by a Sudra or any unclean thing, may be purified by scraping ; and wood and bone and horn must be treated in the same manner. Anything made of stone after being washed must be buried for seven days. A sieve, a winnowing basket, a dver-skin, and the like, and a pestle-and-mortar, are purified by being sprinkled with water. A cart may be scraped in the part defiled and the rest dashed with water. An earthen vessel is purified by being heated in the fire; and the ground by one of-the following: sweeping, lighting a fire thereon, ploughing, lapse of @ considerable time, being touched by the feet or back of a cow, sprinkling with water, digging or plastering with cowdung. Food smelt by a cow ov into which hair, flies or lice* have fallen, is purified with ashes and water. If any thing is defiled by excretions from the mouth, nose, eyes, ears, or sweat, or touched by hnir ov nails detached from one’s own body, it should he first washed, and then scoured with clean earth, and again washed until the smear and smell have gone. Excretions from the mouth, nose, ears, or eyes of another, if they come from above the navel, must if possible, be purified as above described, after which he must bathe: all below the navel, and the two hands are purified by cleansing in tho same way. If he be defiled with spirituous liquor, semen, blood, catamenia, (the touch of) a lying-in woman, ordure and urine, he must wash with water and Scour with earth, and again wash with water if the defilement be above the navel ; if it extend below, after the second washing, he must rub himself with butter from a cow and then with its milk, and afterward with its buéter- milk, and next smear himself with cowdung and wash in its urine, and fiually drink three handfuls of water from the river. If he touch a washer- man, or a dyer, or a currier, or an executioner, or a hunter, or a fisherman, or an oilman, or {ame swine, he is purified by water only. But if he touch @ woman in her courses or a lying-in woman, or @ sweeper, or a great

1 Mana. V. 108. Burnell uses the 2 The word is ‘kirm’ a worm in the word ‘ velocity.’ | text, but rendered lice in Manu,

296 PROHIBITED FOOD.

sinner,! or a corpse, or a dog, or an ass, cat, crow, domestic cock, mouse or a eunuch, or the smoke of a burning corpse, or the dust from an ass, dog, goat or sheep reach him, he must enter the water in his clothes and bathe and look at the sun and prononnce incantations to it. After touching a greasy human bone, he must bathe with his clothes on or else wash himself and drink three handfuls of water and look at the sun and put his band nmponacow. Where the sun is not visible, he must look upon fire. If silk or wool.come in contact with any thing the touch of which (in a man) would require his bathing, it is purified by air and sunshine if it be not actually defiled, otherwise it must also be washed. A woman in her courses becomes pure after the fourth day.

If it is not known whether a thing be clean or unclean, they accept the decision of some virtuous person regarding it or sprinkle it with water. The details on this subject are numerous.

Inproper Dress.

A blue garment, unless it be of silk or wool, is improper for any caste except a Sidra, but a Bradhman’s wife at night, and a Kshatriya woman as a bride or at a feast, may wear it, and a Vaigya woman must avoid it when performing the Srdddha or funeral rites. The women of all three castes may not wear it when cooking or eating.

Prouwisitep Foon.

Human flesh, beef, horse-flesh, domestic cocks and hens, the parrot, the Sdrika,* the Mynah, the pigeon, the owl, the vulture, the chameleon, the bustard, the Sdras (Ardea antigone), tlle Paptha and waterfowl, frogs, snakes, weasels and animals whose toes are joined (web-faoted birds) : animals that abide in towns, except the goat; the ruddy goose (Anas casarca), the pond-heron (Ardea torra),> dried fish or flesh, five kinds of fish, viz.:—(1). The Rohu, (Cyprinus Rohita). (2). The Patthar Chatd (Stone licker). (3). The Sankara (probably a skate the Raia Sankar). (4). The Rdjiva. (5.) The Bérahi :s carnivorous animals, the camel, the

1 Mahdpdtakin, See post p. 297. n. 2.

® See p. 121, u. 2.

8 These last two in the text seem in- eluded in the exception, bat the pond- heron or paddy-bird at least is express- ly forbidden by Mann. v. 13.

The last named, of which there are

soveral variants, and the second and third, are not in Manu who mentions the paf-

hina and simhatunda which togethor with the rdéjtva and rohu or rohita are declared to be lawful, bat the commen- tutor Medha-tithi limits the two latjer to use at sacrificial ceremonies. I do not find the Patthar-chata mentioned in Day’s Fishes of India. Stone-licking is common to a good many if not to all. The Sankara is perhaps, a skate, the

CEREMONIES 1N COOKING AND EATING. 297

élephant, the rhinoceros, the monkey, the various reptiles; all that pro- duces intoxication, camel’s milk, mare’s milk, and the milk of all animals that divide not the hoof ;! goat’s and ewe’s milk, the milk of forest animals, woman’s milk, milk from a cow in the first ten days after calving, milk of a cow whose calf has died, till she calves again; garlic, leeks, carrots, the Sebesten plum (Cordia Sebestena) the produce from unclean land, or food which a man’s foot bas touched or the hand of a woman in her courses; anything from the house of a courtesan, or a thief, or a carpenter, or a usurer, or a blacksmith, or a polisher, or a goldsmith, or a washerman, or a weaver, or a tanner, or @ currier, or a singer or dancer, or an armourer, or a dog keeper, or a seller of spirits, ov a physician, or a surgeon, or a hunter, or a eunuch; food set apart or the food of one who has committed the five great sins ;? food dressed for offer- ings to. the deities, leavings of food of one in mourning during tiié period of mourning, food of an unchaste woman, cheese and the like that is made of milk,3 all food dressed with oil or water and left all night; whatever becomes sour from being Jeft long; food in which hair or insects may have fallen; food eaten without the five ceremonies which are obligatory before meals, as will be now described.

These details are already numerous and what has been said must suffice.

F CEREMONIES IN CooKING AND Eating.

Each time before cooking, if it be in the house, the floor and part of the wall should be plastered with cowdung and earth, and if it be in the woods, as much ground as will hold the materials and the cooking utensils. No one but the person* who cooks may occupy the spot, and he must first bathe and put on a loin-cloth and cover his head and thus complete his meal. If a piece of paper or dirty rag or other such thing fall on the plastered space, the food is spoilt. He must bathe again and newly plaster ‘the ground and provide fresh materials. The cook must be either the mistress of the family or a Brahman whose special duty this may be, or a relation, or the master of the house himself.

Raia Sankur; Rajiva signifies streaked or striped, and is mentioned by Monier Williams as a fish whose spawn is said to be poisonous. I cannot identify it nor the following name Bérahi. The rhino- ceros is a disputed animal, M. V. 18, n. 6,

1 A variant omits the negative, but Mann is @istinct on the point and forbids the milk of animals with a solid hoof,

8 Slaying a Bréhman, drivking spiri- tuous liquor, theft, adultery with tho wife of a Gura are the four grent crimes ; associating with those who commit them is the fifth. Manu IX, 235, and X1, 55.

8 Curdled milk and all produced from it are expressly allowed. V.10. |

4 The text hag by mistake 823 for HOO}.

298 RULES OF FASTING.

Before eating, the place where they sit must be plastered in the same way, and they occupy it without spreading any covering on the ground, but a stool or a wooden board, bare as aforesaid, may be used.

Next, the following five ceremonies are regarded as indispensable :— (1). Reading some portion of the Vedas. 2). Sprinkling water as a liba- tion to departed ancestors. (3). Placing some food in front of the idol. (4). Throwing a little food on the ground in the name of the deities. (5). Giving some to the poor. First the children eat, then the relations satisfy themselves, after which the man himself partakes, but not out of the same dish with another even though it be a child. None but the cook may bring any provisions to the gathering. If by accident his hand touches &ny one, or he is touched by others, whatever food he holds in his hand at the time he must throw away, and bathiug anew, bring fresh materials ;

“unless the cook be a woman, for whom it will suffice to wash her hands and feet. The cook eats last of all. In drinking also, each person must have a separate vessel.

Formerly it was the custom for a Brahman to eat at the house of a Brahman or of a Kshatriya or of a Vaigya, and a Kshdétriya might eat at any house but that of a Sidra; and a Vaisya in the same way ; but in this cycle of the Kali Yuga, each must take his meal in the house of his own caste. The utensils from which they eat are generally the leaves of trees, and fashioned of gold, silver, brass, and also of bell-metal, and they avoid the use of copper, earthenware, and stone vessels. They also consider it im- proper to eat from a broken dish or from the leaves of the bar or banyan tree (ficus Indica), the pipal, (ficus religiosa) and the swallow-wort (Ascle- peas gigantea).! To eat twice either in the night or day is not approved.

Rores or Fasriye. These are of numerous kinds, but a few will be mentioned. The first kind is when they neither eat nor drink during the day and night, and twenty-nine of these days are obligatory during the year, viz., on the eleventh day of each lunar fortnight of every month ; the Sivardtri ;#

1 These being sacred; the flowers of the Asclepeas are placed npon the idol Mahfdeva. It secretes an acrid milky jaice which flows from wounds in the shrub, and. is applied to various medi- cinal purposes, and preparations of the plant are employed to cnre all] kinds of fits, opilepsy, hysterics, convulsions, poisonous bites. Tho flowers are large

and beuutiful, a mixture of rose and purple: there is also a white-flowered variety. Roxburgh, “ Flora Indica.”

8 Siva’s night, a popalar festival iu hononr of Siva kept on the 14th of the dark half of the month of Maghe (Jan.- Feb.) When Siva is worshipped under the type of the Linga, a rigorous fast is observed. Monior Williams.

RULES OF FASTING. 299

the fourteenth of the light half of the mouth of Vuisdikha (April-May) in which the birth of the Nara-Sinha, or Man-lion took place ; the third of the light half of the same month being the anniversary of the birth of Parasuréma ; the ninth of the light half of the month of Chaiiva (March- April), the nativity of Réma; and the eighth of the dark half of the month of Bhddra-pada (Bhddon, Aug.—Sep.), the nativity of Krishna. On these occasions, some abstain from grain only, and other authorities lay down particular details.

The second kind. They eat only at night.

Uhe third kind. They take only water, fruit and milk.

The fourth kind. They eat but once during the day and night, but taay drink water at any time. «dee

The fifth kind. They do not of ‘their own desire eat during twenty-four hours, but if pressed to do so, they may partake of food not more than once.

The sieth kind is the Chandrayana, which is in five ways :—(1). On the first day of the month, one mouthful is taken and an increase of one mouthful made daily till the fifteenth, from which date it diminishes daily by the like quantity. (2). Or on the first of the month, fifteen mouthfuls are taken and the consumption daily diminishes till the fifteenth, when it is reduced to one mouthful ; after which it again increases by one mouthful daily. (3). Some say that instead of this, three mouthfuls, should be taken coach half-day, and nothing else should be touched. (4). Or, again, eight mouthfuls each half-day, four in the morning and four in the even- ing. (5). Or two hundred and forty mouthfuls may be eaten (during the month) in any manner at will: The size of the mouthful should be that of a pea-hen’s egg, and the faster should bathe regularly morning, noon, and evening.

The seventh kind, They neither eat nor drink for twelve days.

The eighth kind. Out of twelve days, they eat a little once daily for three days consecutively, and once at night only for three other days; during three other days and nights they do not ent unless some one brings them food, and for the remaining three, they fast altogethor.

The ninth kind. For three days and nights they eat no more than one handful, and for three other days the same allowance only at night: for three more days and nights if any food is brought to them, they may take one handful, and for three days and nights they eat nothing.

The tenth kind. For three days and nights, they swallow only warm water: for three other such periods only hot milk, and again for three days and nights hot clarified butter, and for three days and nights they light a fire and put the month against an opening by which the hot air enters, which they inhale.

300 ENUMERATION OF SINS.

The eleventh kind. Out cf fifteen days, for three days and nights they eat only leaves, and for three days and nights only the Indian fig; for three days and nights they are content with the seeds of the lotus; for three days and nights, leaves of the pzpal; for three days and nights, the kind of grass called ddbha.!

The twelfth kind. For six days out of the week they must content themselves with one of the following six consecutively, the produce of the cow:—(l). Urine. (2). Dung. (3). Milk. (4). Buttermilk. (5). Bué- ter. (6). Water. On the seventh he must abstain from food altogether.

During every kind of fast they must abstain from meat, the pulse Adas, (Cicer lens), the bean Lobiyd, (Dolichos Sinensis), honey and molasses ; they must sleep on the ground ; they may not play at such games as chaupar and solah*; nor approach their wives at night, nor anoint themselves with oil, nor shave, and the like, and they must give alms daily and perform other good works. .

ENUMERATION OF Sins.

Although these exceed expression, and a volume could not contain them, they may be classed in seven degrees.

The first degree comprises five kinds which cannot be expiated.

(1). Killing a Bréhman. (2). Incest with the mother, (3). Drink- ing spirituous liquors by a Bréhman, Kshbatriya or Vaisya; accounted no sin, however, in a Sidra. Some authorities name three kindg of spirits, viz., distilled from rice or other grain: from mahwd (Bassia Latifolia), and the like: from molasses and similar things. All three are forbidden to the Bréhman; the first-named only to the Kshdétriya and the Vaigya. (4). Stealing ten mdshas‘of gold. (5). Associating for one year with anyone guilty of these four.

The second degree. Untruth in regard to genealogy, carrying a slander to the king, and false accusation of a Guru, are equivalent to slaying a Brah- man.

Carnal connection with sisters by the same mother,’ with immature

1 Or darbha, the name specially of the having two transverse bars in the form kusa-grass (Poa Cynosurotdes) used at of a cross drawn on the playing cloth, sacrificial ceremonies, but aleo applied to and the other played with a number of the Saccharum spontaneum and 8S. cylin lines drawn on the ground. dricum. 8 Taken in thia sense by Sir W Jones,

3 Both are games of hazard: the lat- and confirmed by the commentator Med- ter ia also called solah-bagghu. The hatithi, but TWopkins translates “ with names are derivatives from the numerals women born of one’s own mother.”

four and sixteen respectively, chaupar Manag, XI. 59.

ENUMERATION OF SINS, 801

girls, with women of the lowest class, and the wives of curriers, painters, rope-dancers, fishermen and fowlers, and the wife of one’s friend or son, is equivalent to the second great sin (of the first degree).

Forgetting the Vedas, or showing them contempt, false testimony (without a bad motive), killing a relation (without malice), and eating prohibited things, are equivalent to the third sin of the first degree.

Betrayal of trust in regard to a deposit, and stealing a human creature, & horse, jewels, silver and land, are equivalent to stealing gold.

Third degree. Killing a cow, adultery with other than the above- Ramed women, theft of other things besides (gold), killing a woman,! a Kshatriya, a Vaisya or a Sidra (without malice), bewitching, oppression of others, exacting illegal imposts, prgpuring for immoral purposes, prostitu- tion and making a livelihood thereby, deserting a teacher or father or mother, usury as has been noticed, trading in a Brahman or Kshatriya unless through necessity, in which case they may not deal in oil, salt, sweetmeats, cooked food, sesame-seed, stone, living animals, red cloths, hempen, linen or woollen cloths, fruits, medicines, arms, poison, flesh perfumes, milk, honey, buttermilk, spirituous liquors, indigo, lac, grass water and leather goods: non-payment of the three debts,? that is to the gods, which is sacrifice; to spiritual teachers, which is reading the Vedas ; and to ancestors for the procreation of their kind: omitting investiture of the sacred thread at the proper time, deserting one’s kindred, selling ® son, @ Wife, a garden, a well, ora holy pool, digging up green produce from the ground having no need of it,’ performing the pdka sacrifice with & selfish view merely, application to the books of a false religion, doing service for hire as a Brahman,* marrying before an elder brother: all these are considered equivalent to killing a cow.

Fourth degree. Dissimulation, sodomy, molesting a Brahman,® smolling any spirituous liquor, and anything extremely footid or unfit to be smelt.§

Fifth degree. Killing an elephant, a horse, a camel, a deer, a goat, a sheep, 2 buffalo, a x¢lgao, a fish, an ass, a dog, a cat,? a pig and the like ;

1 The variant in the notes is correct and I have adopted it instead of the read- ing of the text which makes the woman the wife of the castes that follow. See Manu, XI. 67.

% To the gods, manes and men, are the three debts with which man is born. XI. 66, n. 7, Hopkins.

8 In Mann, cutting down green trees for firewood.

39

4 That ie teaching the Vedag for hire working in mines and dykes and bridges and other mechanical works, serving a Sadra, all of which are forbidden.

6 With hand or staff. Medbftithi. XI. 68. n. 11. Hopkins.

6 The variant woasys in the note is correct.

7 A variant has kotahpde which in Vol. II. p. 838. n. 1., I have rendorod aa the

.

302 INTERIOR SINS.

receiving property from forbidden persons as a Chandala or pariah, and the like; trading in the things aforesaid without necessity, falsehood, and serving a Sidra.

Sizth degree. Killing small insects like ants; eating from the hand or vessel of a wine-seller.

Seventh degree. Stealing fruit, flowers, and firewood; want of mental firmness on important occasions.!

For each of these degrees of sin certain penauces have been appointed, the performance of which releases from further penalty : for instance, they say that whoever kills a Braéhman will transmigrate into the form of 4 deer, a dog, a camel, or boar. When he takes human form he will be subject to diseases and end his life in great afflictions. The expiation is to cut off pieces of his own flesh and skin and throw them into the fire, or for twelve years forsake his family and taking a human skull in bis hand, go a begging and from street to street and door to door proclaim his wickedness; this is, provided it was accidental,? otherwise this penance lasts twenty-four years.

Interior Sins.

Although they hold these to be very numerous twelve are accounted heinous:—(1). Krodha, being under the influence of anger. (2). Zobha, inordinate desire of rank and wealth. (3). Dvesha, hatred towards men. (4). Bdga, love of worldly pleasures. (5). Jfdna, esteeming one’s self above others. (6). Moha, ignorance. (7). Mada, intoxication from spiri- tuous liquors or wealth or youth or station or knowledge. (8). Soka, ab- sorption in grief through loss of goods, reputation or honour, or separation from friends. (9). Mdmatva, considering the things of the world as one’s own, (10). Ahankdra, egoism. (11). Bhaya, fearing other than God. (12). Harsha, joy in one’s own virtue and the evil of others.

The endeavour of such as desire to know God should be first to res- train themselves from these twelve sins until they acquire virtuous dis- positions and become worthy to attain to the divine union, Some say that all evil actions are reducible to ten heads,* of which three corrupt

hog-dcer (cervus porcinus) for reasons thorcin given. All forest animals are for- bidden to be killed by Manu.

1 On trifling occasions,’ according to Sir. W. Jones. Hopkins omits the con- dition altogether,

a@ The penance is doubled for a Kasha- triyn, and trebled and quadrupled for tho next two castes,

8 The text has erroneonsly Afatva. Bfama-tva signifies literally, mine-ness, a3 Ahankdra signifies as literally ego-ism.

& This is taken from Manu, XII. 5, 6,7 Resolving on forbidden things is defined by a commentator as desiring to kills Bréhman and the like, and the third in conceiving notions of materialism and atheism.

SACRED PLACES OF PILGRIMAGE. 803

the heart, viz., coveting the goods of another; resolving on any forbidden deed; scepticism in regard to the chosen servants of God. The same number defile the members of the body, vzz., taking the goods of another by force ; injury to the innocent ;! adultery.

The sins of the tongue are four, viz., scurrilous language, falsehood, slander, and useless tattle. ;

May the omnipotent Lord keep us from these ten sing and bring us to the goal of our desire.

Sacrep Praces or Pirerimage.

Although profound and enlightened moralists are convinced that true happiness consists in the acquisition of virtue and recognise no other tem- ple of God but a pure heart, nevertheless the physicians of the spiritual order, from their knowledge of the pulsation of human feeling, have bes- towed on certain places a reputation for sanctity and thus rousing the slumberers in forgetfulness and instilling in them the enthusiastic desire of sceking God, have made these shrines instruments for their reverencing of the just, and the toils of the pilgrimage a means of facilitating the attainment of their aim.

These holy places are of four degrees.

The first is termed deva or divine and dedicated to Brahma, Vishnu and Mahdideva. The greatest among these are twenty-eight rivers in the following order :— ;

(1). Ganges. (2). Sarasvati. (3). Jamuna. (4). Narbadi.? (5). Vipigé, known as the Bi&h (Hyphasis). (6). Vitast&é (Hydaspes or Bidaspes) known as the Bihat. (7), Kausiki, a river near Rhotis® in the Panjab, but some place it in the neighbourhood of Garhi in the eastern districts. (8). Nandavati* (9). Chandrabhaga, known as the Chenab. (10), Sarayo (Sarju) known as the Saréu. (11). Satyavati.6 (12). Tapi

1 Properly injury without sanction of law, that is, to animale except at autho- rised sacrifices, to men when not in- flicted as logal ponalties: Manu, XII. 7, n. 2.

3 Properly Narma-d4, giving pleasure ; commonly, Nerbudda.

8 Roktis or Rotas near Jhelum, over- looks the Kuhfn Nadi according to the I, G. I find no river of this name in the Panjab, but the Kosi another name for the KanSiki in Behar, is well known and

its location there is properly nesigned. Garhi ig a pargand of Purneah throngh which district the river flowa. Keith Johnston gives it also the name of the Saukhussi which the I. G. treats as another river joining the Brahmapnutra, but not traceable in his map.

4 Monier Williams gives 4 Nand&tirtha apparently connected with a rivor which he cannot identify.

5 The sameans the Kansiki. Satyavati, the mother of Jamadagni, father of

804 SACRED PLACES OF PILGRIMAGE.

known as Tapti, upon the (north) bank of which is Burhénpdr.! (13). Para- vati® (14). Pasavati, (15). Gomati (Gumti) near Dvédraké.8 (16). Gandaki, upon the banks of which is Sultanpur of the Sabah of Ondh. (17). Baéhudé.t (18). Devik& (Deva or Gogra). (19). Godavari, called also Ban- ganga.® Pattan of the Dekhan is situated on its bank. (20). Tamraparni®

at the extremity of the Dekhan. Here pearls arefound. (21). Charman- vati, (22). Varana, near Benares.. (23). Ivavati, known asthe Ravi (Hy- draotes). Lahor is onits bank. (24). Satadru (the hundred-channelled), known as the Sutlej. Ludiana is upon its bank. (25). Bhimarathi, called also the Bhima, in the Dekhan. (26). Parnasona.7 (27). Van-

ParuSnréma became the Kuanfiki rivor. The recurrence of the same name is noticed by Wilson in his enumeration of the rivers who attributes it either to the error of a copyist, or to one name being applied to different rivers: in this case different names to the same river.

1 See Vol. II. pp. 223, 226, 238.

3 The Parvati in Malwa, Wilson V. P.

8 This cannot, of coarse, be the Dva- raka known as Krishna’s capital in Kathiawér. In some MSS, the name Dvaraka ig omitted as well as the Gan- daki, and the words in the text “upon the banks of which,” &., follow imme- diately after “‘Gomati.” There must be scme errorinthe transcription. Sultdn- pir is on the Gamti, 150 miles from the Gandak.

4 Wilford considers it the Mahénada which falls into the Ganges below Malda, but Trelawney Saunders places it below the mouths of the Orissa Makénadi.

® According to the I. G. there are two of this name. One rising in the bills N. of Jeypore and falling into the Jumna after a course of 200 miles. Another rising 8. of Nepal bounding the Ondh terai and joining the Burhi Rapti at Karmanighaét. Thisis called the ‘ arrow’ (vdya) river, perhaps from the legend of Ravana cleaving a hill with a shaft,

from which a river is said to have arisen. Wilford gives this name to the Sardvatf (full of recds), now called the Rémgangé. The name applies to tho thickets of reeds on its banks where Kirrtikeya was born. (As. Res. XIV 409). I do not observe this name applied to the Godavari.

6 In Tinnevelli. The name occurs in the Rémiyana.

Pass Tamraparni’s flood whose isles

Are loved by basking crocodiles,

Tho Sandal woods that fringe her’ side

Those islets and her waters hide ;

While like an amorous matron, she

Speeds to her own dear lord, the Sea, Griffiths. IV. X. LI.

7 I conceive this to be the Son, which is supposed to derive its name from the Sarsk. Sona, crimson. It is the Eran- noboas of Arrian and Pliny, though the point is disputed 1s both this and the Sonus are apparently applied to two. rivers. Its Sanskrit epithets are Hiranyd vdhu (or golden armed) and Hiranya vihas (wuriferous). Parna, sig- nifies both feather and Jeaf and may be a fanciful adjunct to ‘crimson,’ but varna signifying ‘colour’ has a higher degree of probability in its favour than may be found for most verbal analogies The last name (18) I cannot identify.

SACRED PLACES OF PILGRIMAGE. 305

java, in the Dekhan. (28). Achamiyyd. Some include the eee bat it is not of the same sanctity.

Each of these rivers as dedicated to one of these deities, has peculiar characteristics ascribed to it: Some of the places situated on their banks are esteemed holy, as, for example, the village of Soron on the Ganges, to which multitudes flock on the twelfth of-the month of Aghan. (Nov.- Dec.). Some regard certain cities as dedicated to the divinities. Among these are Kasi, commonly called Benaves. The adjacent country for five kos around the city is held sacred. Although pilgrimages take place through- out the year, on the Siva-rdiri! multitudes resort thither from distant parts and it is considered one of the most chosen places in which to die, Final liberation is said to be fourfold:—(1), Sélokya,? passing from the degrees of paradise to Kailasa. They say that when a man goes to heaven through good works, he must return to earth, but wheng after various transmigra- tions, he attains that region, he returns no more. (2). Sdripya (assimi- lation to tho deity); when a man partakes of the divine elementary form, he does not revisit the earth. (3). Sdmdzpya (nearness to the deity) is when @ man after breaking the elemental bonds, by the power of good works is admitted into the presence of God’s oclect, and does not return to earth. (4). Sdyujya (absorption into the deity); after passing through all inter- mediate stages, he obtains the bliss of true liberation. They have likewise divided the territory of Benares into four kinds. The characteristic of two parts is that when a being dies therein, he attains the fourth degree of Mukti ; if he dies in one of the others, he reaches the third degree, and if in the remaining one, the second degree.

Ayodhyé, commonly called Awadh. The distance of forty kos to the east, and twenty to the north is regarded as sacred ground. On the ninth of the light half of the month of Ohaztra a great religious festival is held.3

Avantikd, Ujjain. All around it for thirty-two kos is accounted holy and a large concourse takes place on the Siva-rdtri.

Kédnchi* (Conjevaram) in the Dekhan. For twenty kos around it is

1 See p. 238, n. 2. a great Buddhist contre, but subsequent-

$1 read wetags for a2 Sdlokya ly fell under the Jain influence, which signifies being in the same heaven with was succeeded in turn by Hindu pre- any particular deity. Katldsa is the dominance. The I. G. mentions its pyra- paradise of Siva, placed according to mids and the thousand-pillared temple their belief in the Himélaya range. witb its splendid porch and fine jewels

8 The anniversary of the birth of as atill attracting visitors. As many as Rima. V. p. 291. 60,000 pilgrims attend the annual fair

*The text has crroneously Kdntt: in May. It is called the Bonares of the Kédnchivaram is the source of the vulgar Soath, I. @,

name. In Hiouen Thsang’s time it was »

306 SACRED PLACES OF PILGRIMAGE.

considered sacred. On the eighth of every Hindu month that falls on Tuesday, there is a great concourse of pilgrims.

Mathura is sacred for forty-eight kos around, and even before it be- came the birthplace of Krishna, was held in veneration. Religious festivals are held on the 23rd of the month of Bhédra (Bhddot, Aug—Sept.) and the 15th of Kédrtttka (Oct—Nov.).}

Dvdraké. The country for forty Zos in length and twenty in breadth is esteemed holy. On the Diwdlé? festival, crowds resort hither.

Mdydé, known as Haridvaéra (Hardwar) on the Ganges. It is held sa; cred for eighteen kos in length. Large numbers of pilgrims assemble on the 10th of Chaitra.

These seven are called the seven (sacred) cities.

Praydéga now called Ilahabés. The distance for twenty kos around is venerated. They say that the desires of a man that dies here are gratified in his next birth. They also hold that whoever commits-suicide is guilty of a great crime except in this spot where it meets with exceeding reward. Throughout the year it is considered holy, but especially so during the month of Mdgha? (Jan—Feb.).

Nagarkot.* For eight kos round it is venerated. On the eighth of the months of Chaitra and Kudr, many pilgrims assemble,

Kdshmir is also accounted of this class and is dedicated to Mahadeva. Many places in it are held in great veneration.

The second are tbe shrines of the Asuras, which are temples dedicated to the Daitya race. In many things they share the privileges of the devatas ; but the latter are more pure, while the others are filled with the principle of tamas (darkness). Their temples are said to be in the lower regions (Patala).

1 The former is the anniversary of the birth of Krishna, i. ¢., adding 15 days of the light helf to 8 of the dark half, making it the 23rd day. The aecond festival is connected with the legend of the Serpent Kaliyé. See. Vish. Par. V. 7.

3 Dipéli in Sansk., a row of lamps. The day of the new moon ‘in the month of Kérttika, on which there are nocturnal illuminations in hononr of Karttikeya, the god of war. The night is often spent in gambling.

3’ There are variants of three other months, Vatsékha, (April-May), Pidl-

guna (Feb.~March) and Kéar (Sept.—Oct, Sansk. Aévina), but the reading of the text ig correct. The sun enters Capricorn in that month, and is regarded as a most propitious period for ceremonies of mar- riage and the like.

• Kfngra. See. Vol. II, p. 312.

5 “ Brahma, then, being desirous of creating the four orders of being termed gods, demons, progenitors, and men, col- lected his mind into itself; whilet thus concentrated the quality of darkness pervaded his body and thence the de- mons (the Asaras) were first born, is- suing from his thigh, This form aban

CUSTOMS OF MARRIAGE. 307

The third are called Arsha, or shrines of the great Rishis, men who by virtue of austerities and good works are in near proximity to the deity. Their shrines ‘are counted by thousands, Amongst them are Nimkhar (Nimishara),! Pukhra (Pushkara),? Khushab, and Baddiri.®

The fourth are called Mdnusha, or appertaining to men who by the power of good works are superior to mankind in general, though they do not obtain the rank of the third degree. Their shrines also are numerous. Among them is Kurukshetra, which for forty kos around is considered holy, and numerons pilgrims resort thither during eclipses of the sun and moon,

Ceremonies are laid down for each pilgrimage and their various meri- torious results are declared.

O rou! that seckest after divine knowledge, learn wisdom of these Hindu legends! Each particle among created atoms is a sublime temple of worship. May the Almighty deliver mankind from the , Wanderings of a vain imagination troubled over many things.

Customs oF Margie.

This is of eight kinds :—

1. Bréhmya.* The girl’s father with other elders of the family visit the bridegroom and bring him to his house where the relations assemble. Then the grandfather, or brother, or any other male relation, or the mother, says before the company :—“T have bestowed such and such a maiden upon such and sacha man.” The bridegroom in the presence of the same com-

doned by him which embodied darkness became night; the quality of goodness then becoming embodied, from his mouth issued the gods; this form abandoned became day. Thus the gods are power- ful by day, the demons at night. Vish. Par. I. 6.

1 See p. 286. n. 6.

3 Town, Jake and shrine in Ajmere- Merwdr, Réjputana, It is the only town in India having a temple dedicated to Brahmé who here performed a sacrifice whereby the Iake became so holy that the greatest sinner is absolved by bath- ing therein. The five principle temples are to Brahm4, Sévitri, Badri Naréyana, Varahe and Siva AtmatuSvara. No liv- ing thing can be put to death within the jimits of the town. This place is evi- dontly meant by the name Pikara in

»

Albirini (Cap. LXVI) among the sacred places of the Hindus. He adds its story as follows: “Brahman once was ocoupied in offering these to the fire when a pig came ont of the fire. Therefore they represent his image there as a pig. Out- side the town in three places, they havo coustrncted ponds which stand in high veneration.” Sachan’s Trans.—Monier Williams says it is now called Pokur.

8 This is the exact transliteration, bat LIapprehend Badri N&th in Garhwél is meant. In Badri-Néréyana, the latter word which is a patronymic form of Nara, the chief or original man, would admit of inolusion under manusha. Khu- sh&b I cannot identify.

• In Mana Brdhma. III, 21, 27. Abul Fazlt ases the adjectival form.

308 CUSTOMS OF MARRIAGE.

pany gives his consent. Certain incantations are then pronounced and the Homa sacrifice is performed. It is tifen declared that the girl’s mother has borne male children and was of smaller stature than her husband,’ and that the bridegroom is not impotent, and both parties declare that they have not been subject to leprosy, phthisis, dyspepsia, hemorrhoids, piles, chronic issue of blood, deformity of limb, or epilepsy. At the nuptials an attendant of the bride washes the feet of the bride and bridegroom and draws the sectarial marks upon them. Three vessels filled severally witl rice and curds, after certain incantations have been pronounced, are then given to them to eat. When this is concluded they are dressed out and taken to a retired chamber and a curtain is hung between the bride and bridegroom. The father takes each of the young people and turns them facing the east and a Brahman repeats certain prayers and places in the hand of each some rice and five betel-nuts. The curtain is then removed and they present to each other what they hold in their hands. The Brah- man next places the two hands of the bride in those of the bridegroom and repeats certain prayers and then reverses the ceremony; after which he binds them both with loose-spun cotton thread, and the girl’s father taking her hand gives her to the bridegroom and says, ‘May there be ever parti- cipation between you and this nursling of happiness in three things—in good works, in worldly goods, and tranquillity of life. “Finally, a fire is lit and the pair are led round it seven times,* and the marriage is com- pleted. Until this is done, the engagement may be lawfully cancelled.

2. Daiva (of the Devas). At the time of a sacrifice, all is given away in alms and a maiden is bestowed on the Brahman performing

1I do not find thie condition. It must not bear the name of a constella-

might possibly mean inferior in casto but in that sense Abul Fazl uses Us’ne Manu requires a bridegroom to avoid the ten following families whatever their wealth in gold or kine, viz., the family which has omitted prescribed acts of reli- gion; that which has produced no male children ; that in which the Veda has not been read; that which has thick hair on the body; and those subject to he- morrhoids, pthisis, dyspepsia, epilepsy, leprosy and albinoism, also a girl with reddish hair, a deformed limb, troubled with habitual sickness: and one with no hair or too mach, and immoderatcly taikntive and with inflamed eyes. She

tion, of a tree, of a river, of a barbarous nation, of a mountain, of a winged crea- ture, asnake, or a slave. She mast have no defect, walk like a goose or an ele- phant, have hair and teeth of moderate quantity and length, an have exquisito softness of person. M. III. 7, 8, 9, 10. The toxt has sit for unis. The words re ys are a translation of the Sans- krit Manddgni, slowness of digestion or Amaya which is the word used by Manu.

8 Properly in seven steps. Tho marri- age is not completed till the seventh step is taken. Mana, VIII. 227, -and note. Hopkins.

CUSTOMS OF MARRIAGE. 309

the sacrifice, The betrothal is then made and the other ceremonies are

conducted as aforesaid.!

3. Arsha (of the Rishis). This rite takes place when a pair of kine have been received from the bridegroom. 4 Prdjépatya* (of the Prajapatis). The man and woman are brought

together and united by this bond. 5. Asura (of the Asuras).

The maiden is received in marriage

‘after as much wealth has been presented to her kinsmen (as the suitor can

afford).8

6. Gdndharva (of the Gandharvas). The pair entertain a mutual affection and are voluntarily united in wedlock without the knowledge of

others.

7. Rdkshasa (of the Raikshasas), is the forcible seizure and abduction of a girl from her people by the ravisher to his own house and there

marrying her.

8. Paisdcha (of the Pisdichas). This rite receives this name when the lover secretly approaches a girl when asleep or intoxicated or dis-

ordered in mind.

Everywhere there is some difference in the preliminary betrothals, but the concluding ceremonies are after the manner above described. The four rites are lawful for a Brahman; and besides the second, all are within his privilege. The fifth is lawful to a Vaisya or a Sitidra; the sixth and

seventh for a Kshatriya.

1 “Bat they term the Daiva rite, the gift of a daughter, after having adorned her, toa sacrificial priest rightly doing hie work ina sacrifice begnn.” Mana, IIT. 28, Burnell. That is, the maiden is part of his fee.

3 In the text incorrectly Rajdpatya, “The gift of the maiden is called the Prajipatya rite (when made) after re- verencing and addressing (the pair) with the words, ‘together do ye both your duty.” Ibid, 30. The Arsha rite is the commonest form now. Barnell.

8 A recognised sale is here meant, This form is practised at the present day by people claiming to be Brahmans, 6 g., the Saiva Brahmans called Garakkal in Southern India, who seldom can get wives for less than a thousand rapees.

40

The eighth is held disgraceful by all.*

It often happens that low caste girls are palmed off upon them. Mana, III. 31, n, 2. ;

• Manz orders them differently. The six first, he says, are legally fora Bréh- man, the four last for a Kehatriya, and the same for a Vaisya and Sidra, excopts the Rakshasa form. Othors, he observes, cousidor the four first approved for a priest ; one, the Rékshasa, for a soldior ; and that of the Asuras for a merchant or one of the servile olass; ‘bat in this code, three of the five last are held legal and two illegal. The ceremonies of the Pis&chas and Asuras mast never be per- formed.’’—Sir W. Jones, According to the commentator, thig last prohibition ig for the Kshatriya not for the Brahman.

310 ; CUSTOMS OF MARRIAGE.

A dower is not mentioned in the case of Bréhmans, and divorce is not customary: In the former ages of the ‘world, it was the rule for Brahmans to take wives from among all the castes, while the other three castes con- sidered it unlawful to wed a Bréhman woman. . The same practice obtained between all superior and inferior castes reciprocally. In the present Kale Yuga no one chooses a wife out of his own caste, nay, each of these four being subdivided into various branches, each subdivision asks in marriage only the daughters of their own equals.

Although there are numerous classes of Brahmans, the noblest by des- cent are from the (seven) Rishis, Kasyapa, Atri, Bharadvaja, Viéva-mitra, Gotima, Angiras, and Pulastya.! Each of these has numerous ramifications. When any member of one of these families attains to any worldly and spiritual eminence and becomes the founder of any class of institutes, his posterity are called by his name. The family caste of each is called Kula (Hindi kul) or gotra,? (Hindi gotar), and the rule is that if a youth and maid be of the same gotra, however distant be the relationship, their marriage is unlawful; but if one be of a separate ula, they may Jawfully marry. Ksha- triyas, Vaisyas and Siddras are dependent for their marriage ceremony on a family priest (purohita), and each class has a special Brihman from one of the seven lines of descent. If the maid and the youth have their several family priests belonging to the same Kula, their marriage is held unlawful. When united in marriage, the wife leaves her own gotra and enters that of her husband.

When the betrothal is first proposed the lines of paternal and maternal ancestry of both the woman and the man are scrutinised. In computing either of the two genealogies, if within each fifth degree of ascent the lines unite, the marriage is not lawful. Also if in the two paternal gonea- logies, they unite in any generation, the marriage canvot take place. Scrutiny of the maternal descent on both sides is not necessary. If in the paternal genealogies of both parties, consanguinity through a female occurs in the eighth generation, it is held lawful, but if in the paternal lines of both, consanguinity through a female occurs in the sixth generation it constitutes a fresh (impediment of) kinship. Tho same result occurs if the consanguinity occurs in the sixth generation by the mother’s side.

1 The Satapatha Bréhmena, and the 3 Among the Br&hmans, twenty-four

‘ Mahabharata differ a little from the text gotras are reckoned, snpposed to be

and from each other; in Manu they are sprang from and named after celebrated

reckoned as ten. The seven Rishis form tenchers, as Sandilya, Kagyapa, Gautama, in Astronomy, the Great Bear. Monier Bharad-vaja, &o. Ibid.

Williams, S. D.

ORNAMENTS OF DRESS. 311

Until the elder brother is married, the younger may not lawfully be so.

It is held expedient that the bride should not be under eight,! and any age over ten is thought improper. The man should be twenty-five, aud marriage after fifty years of age, they regard as unbecoming. Excepting in -the king, it is not considered right for a man to have more than one wife, unless his first wife is sickly or proves barren, or her children die. In these cases, he may marry ten wives, but.if the tenth proves defective, he may not marry again. If his first wife is suitable, and he desires to take another, he must give the first a third part of his estate.

It was the custom in ancient times for the daughters of kings when they sought a busband, to hold a great festival. Her suitors were assembled together and the damsel attended, the banquet in person. Of whomever ° she made choice, she placed upon his neck a string of pearls and flowers. This custom was called Svayamvara, or self-choice.®

Quando mulier mensium suorum expers sit quod post quatriduum contingit, si maritus ejus intra duodecim dies proximos in quibus satis pro- babile est conceptus, ineat eam, necesse est ii perlutum esse. In reliquis temporibus dissimilis est ratio et manus pedesque lavare satis esse censeant. Per totum tempus mensium coitum in crimine ponunt. In diebus his, vivit mulier in secessu, neque cibum mariti nec vestimenta tangit neque ad culinam accedit ne contaminet eam.

Sanincara,3 or Ornaments of Dress.

A man is adorned by twelve things :—(1). Trimming his beard. (2). Ablution of his body. (3). Drawing the sectarial marks of caste. (4). Anointing with perfumes and oil. (5). Wearing gold earrings. (6). Wearing the jdma‘ fastened on the left side. (7). Bearing the mukuta

1 “A man aged thirty yoars, may mar- ry a girl of twolve, if he find one dear to his heart, or aman of twenty-four years, a damsel of eight; bat if he should finish his studentship earlier and the duties of his next order would otherwise be impeded, let him marry immediate- ly.” M. IX, 94 Sir W. Jones.

8 An instance occurs, among many, in the well-known epic of Nala and Damyanti. The practice is conceded in Manu (JX. 92), but as Hopkins obsorves,

%

only out of respect for the old custom and was not practised ut that date. YAjna- valkya and othors permit it when thore are no relatives to give away the girl in marriage. Some early writers con- ceded it withont distinction of caste: in the epic it is confined to royal maidens: among later commentators it is restriot- ed to the lower castes.

8 Hindi. Singdr, dress or ornament,

4 The jdéma is described in the dic- tionarios os being a long gown from

312 JEWELS.

which is a golden tiara worn on the turban. (8). Wearing a sword, (9). Carrying a dagger and the like, at the waist. (10). Wearing a ring on the finger. (11). Eating betel. (12). Wearing sandals or shoes.

A woman is adorned by sixteen things:—(1). Bathing. (2). Anoint- ing with oil. (3). Braiding the hair. (4). Decking the crown of her head- with jewels (5). Anointing with sandal-wood unguent. (6). The wearing of dresses and these are of various kinds. The sleeves of some reach to the fingers, of others to the elbows. A jacket without o skirt called angiyd (Sansk. angiké) was chiefly worn, and instead of drawers, a lahangé which is a waist-cloth joined at both ends with a band sewn at the top through which the cord passes for fastening, It isalso made in other forms, Others wear the dandiyd which is a Jarge sheet worn over the lahangé, part of which is drawn over the head and the other end fastened at the waist. These three garments are of necessity. The wealthy wear other garments over this. Some wear the veil! and pde-jdmas. (7). Sectarial marks of caste, and often decked with pearls and golden ornaments. (8). Tinting with lamp- black like collyrium. (9). Wearing earrings. (10). Adorniog with nose-rings of pearls and gold. (11). Wearing ornaments round the neck. (12). Decking with garlands of flowers or pearls. (13). Staining the hands. (14). Wearing a belt hung with small bells. (15). Decorating the feet with gold ornaments. (16). Eating pan. Finally blandishments and artfulness.

JEWELS.

These are of many kinds :’—(1). The Szs-phil, an ornament for the head resembling the marigold. (2). Mdsag, worn on the parting of the hair to add to its beauty. (3). Kofbilédar, worn on the forehead consisting of five bands and a long centre-drop. (4). Sekrd, seven or more strings of pearls linked to studs and hung from the forehead in such @ manner as to conceal the face. It is chiefly worn at marriages and births. (5). Bindult, smaller than a (gold) muhur and worn on the forehead. (6). Khuntild, a earring tapering in shape. (7). Karnphil (eav-flower), shaped like the flower of the Magrela,? a decoration for the ear. (8). Durbachh, a earring.

eleven to thirty breadths in the skirt, 2 I refer the reader for an explana- folded into many plaits in the upper tion of these ornaments to the Persian part and donble-breasted on the body text of the Ist Vol. of the Ain-i-Akbari and tied in two places on each side. which contains in the pnges succeeding

1 In the text, y= which I conceive the preface, plates of the jewels here corresponds to the Hindi, eaieMN—th 6 mentioned and a descriptive catalogue of

sheet or mantle covering the head and the whole series.

upper part of the body, 8 Dr. King, Superintendent, Royal Bo-

JEWELS. 313

(9). Pipal-pattt, (Pipal-leaf) crescent-shaped, eight or nine being worn in each ear. (10). Bald,acirclet with a pearl worn inthe ear. (11). Champa- kali, smaller than the red rose,! and worn on the shell of the ear. (12). Mor-Bhanwar, shaped like a peacock, a ear-pendant. (13). Bésar isa broad Piece of gold to the upper ends of which a pearl is attached and at the other a golden wire which is clasped on to the pearl and hung from thé nose by gold wire (14). Phild is like a bud, the stalk of which is at- tached to the nose. (15). Lawng, an ornament for the nose in the shape of aclove. (16). Nath® is a golden circlet with a ruby between two pearls, or other jewels. It is worn in the nostril. (17). Guluband consists of five or seven rose-shaped buttons of gold strung on to silk and worn round the neck. (18). Hér is a necklace of,istrings of pearls inter-connected by golden roses. (19). Haas is @ necklace. (20). Kangan is a bracelet. (21). Gajrah, « bracelet made of gold and pearls. (22). Jawe, consisting of five golden barley-corns (jaz) strung on silk and fastened on each wrist. (28). Ohdr,* (a bracelet) worn-above the wrist., (24). Bdéhd is like the chir but a little smaller. (25). Chéria, a little thinner than the (ordi- nary) bracelet. Some seven are worn together. (26). Bdziband, (arm- let) ; of these there are various kinds. (27). Téd, a hollow circle worn on the arm. (28). Angéthd, finger ring. Various forms are made. (29). Chhudr-Khanfikd,’ golden bells strung on gold wire and twisted round the waist, (30). Kafi-mekhld, a golden belt, highly decorative. (31). Jehar, three gold rings, as ankle-ornaments. The first is called Chiérd, consisting of two hollow half-circlets which when joined together form a complete ving. The second is called déndhand, and resembles the former only en- graved somewhat. The third is called masich¢ and is like the second but differently engraved. (32). Pddl, the anklet, called Khalkhdl (in Arabic). (84). Ghirghrz, small golden bells, six on each ankle strang upon silk and worn between the Jehar and Khalkhdl. (85). Bhdéak, an ornament for the instep, triangular and square. (36). Bichhwah, an ornament for the

“ Love-in-mist.” From the specimen Dr, King has been good enongh to send me,

tanical Gardeus, whose invaluable aid ig never withheld and never at fault,

on my reference to him informs me that, this is the Nigella sativa sometimes called the N. Indica, and is not a na- tive of Hindustan, bat domesticated. The seeds are largely used in cookery, and in Bengal are named Kala stra or black Cumin-seed. The flower has calyx of delicate fibres dishevelled in Rppearance and is commonly known as

the ornament imitates the appearance admirably.

1 See n. 1, p. 409, Vol. II.

& This and the following are omitted by Blochmann.

8 The text duplicates the ¢ incorrectly,

4 This is usually written with a hard r, and for Chirin below, she dictionaries give chiré,

314 DECORATIVE ART.

instep shaped like half a bell. (87). Anwuf, an ornament for the great toe. : ; All these ornaments are made ejther plain or studded with jewels, and are of many styles. What words can express the exquisite workmanship of the trade ? Their delicacy and skill is such that the cost of the work is ten folaks for each toleh of gold. Her Majesty has suggested new patterns in each kind. A few of these have been represented in plates for illustra- tion.

Workmen 1n Decorative Art.

Tn other countries the jewels are secured in the sockets made for them, with lac, but in Hindustan, it is effected with kundan which is gold made so pure and ductile that the fable of the gold of Parviz which be could mould with his hand becomes credible.!

The mode of preparation is as follows:—Of a mdsha of gold they draw out a wire eight fingers long and one finger in breadth. Then the wire is coated with a mixture of two parts of the ashes of dried field- cowdung® and one part of Sambhar® salt, after which it is wrapped in a coarse cloth and covered with clay. This is generally of not more than ten tolahs weight, and it is placed in a fire of four sers of cowdung which is then suffered to cool dowa. If there is but little alloy in it, it will become of standard fineness after three fires, otherwise it must be coated with the same mixture and passed through three more fires. It is-generally found that three coatings and three fires are sufficient for the purpose. Jt must then be washed and placed in an earthen vessel filled with limejnice or some other (acid) which is heated to boiling. It is then cleaned and wound round a cane and taken off (when required ), and re-heated from time to time, and used for setting by means of an iron style and so adheres that it will not become detached for a long period of time. At first the ornament is

1 This was one of the seven unequal. led treasures possessed by Khueran

ed by Blochmann (I. 21) incorrectly the dry dung of the wild cow. It morely

Parviz. It waa said to be a piece of gold that might be held in the hand and as ductile ag wax. The others were his throne Tdghdts; his treasure called the Bdddvard, or wiad-borne, because being conveyed by sea to the Roman emperor, the vessel was cast upon his shores ; his horse shabdéz ; his minstrel Bdérbud ; his minister Shdhpkr, and above all his incomparable wife Shirtn.

3 ests? Jf wate This is, translat-

means the cowdung picked up in the fields and jungles; in Windi pdchak and kanda.

8 From the well-known great salt- lake in the States of Jaipdr, and Jodh- ptr of which the Govt. of India are lessees by trenty The out-turn in 1883-84 was 71,111, 353 mawnds, giving a net revenne of £746,716. Under Akbar it was worked by the Imperial adminis- tration. I. @,

DECORATIVE ART. 315

fashioned quite plain and here and there they leave sockets for tho setting of the jewels. These sockets are filled with lac and a little of the gold is inserted above it, and on this the jewel is pressed down. The overflow of the lac is scraped off and it is then weighed. They next cover the lac with the kundan by means of a needle, and finally scrape and polish it with a steel-pointed tool. :

The fee of a skilled artificer for this work is sixty-four déms on ‘each tolah.

The Zarnishdn or gold inlayer, is a workman who cuts silver, agate, crystal and other gems in various ways and sets them on gold. He inlays silver and steel with lines of gold and embellishes agates and other stones by engraving and cutting them. Ox steel and gems, if he uses one tolah of gold, he receives one and a half as his charge; if he inlays on ivory, fish-bone, tortoise-shell, rhinoceros-horn or silver, his charge for every toluh of gold is one tolah of the same.

The Koftgar or gold-beater, inlays on steel and other metals markings more delicate than the teeth of a file, and damascenes with gold and silver wire. He receives one hundred ddms for each tolah of gold and sixty for a tolah of silver. His work is principally on weapons.

The Mindékdr or cnameller, works on cups, flagons, rings and other articles with gold and silver. He polishes his delicate enamels separately On various colours, sets them in their suitable places and puts them to the fire. This is done several times. His charge is sixteen ddms for each tolak of gold, and seven for a tolah of silver.

The Sddah-kdr, a plain goldsmith, fashions gold-work and other nvticled of gold and silver. gold and two for every tolah of silver.

The Shabekah-kdr! executes pierced-work in ornaments and vessels. His charge is double that of the Sdédah-kér.

The Ifunabbat-kdr works plain figures or impressions on a gold ground, so that they appear in relief. and four for « tolah of silver. . :

The Charm-kdér? incrusts granulations of gold and silver liko poppy-

His charge is five and a half dams on every tolah of

His charge is ten déms for a tolah of gold

editor cannot determine the corroct reading nor the pronnnciation, I have

1 From the Arabic Shabakat, a fishing net, a lattice; 4. ¢, any reticulated

work. Munabbat comes from the Ara- bio root ‘nabt’ ond is pass. part. of IL. conj., ‘to cause to grow out’; hence repouss¢-work. 8 This word has three variants by al- teration of the diacritical points. The ”%

therefore chosen conjecturally what ap- pears to me the most probable term. Charm signifies leather and the granula- ted kind of it called kfmukht or shagreen (from the Pers. Sdghart) would ropre- sent the style of work which tho toxt

316° CEREMONIES AT CHILDBIRTH. seeds on ornaments and vessels. For every tolah weight of golden grains his charge is one rupee, and half of this for silver.

The Sim-bdf or plaiter of silver, draws out gold and silver wire and plaits them into belts for swords, daggers and the like. He receives twenty- four déms on a tolah of gold and sixteen for a folah of silver.

The Sawdd-kar grinds a black composition (sawdd) and lays it smoothly over traceries of. gold and then polishes the ground evenly with a file. The sawdd consists of gold, silver, copper, lead and sulphur mixed together in certain proportions. The work is of several kinds. The finest is on gold and the charge is two rupees per folah of sawdd. For the middling kind, the charge is one rupee, and for the lowest, eight annas,

The Zar-kob or gold beater, makes gold and silver leaf.

Lapidaries, metal casters, and other artificers produce designs which excite astonishment, but this exposition is already sufficiently protragted. Artists of all kinds are constantly employed at the Imperial Court where their work is subjected to the test of criticism.

CEREMONIES AT CHILDBIRTH.

As soon as @ child is born, the father bathes himself in cold water, , worships the deities and performs the Srdddha ceremonies, and stirring some honey and ghee together with a gold ring, puts it into the infant’s mouth. The midwife then cuts the umbilical cord, and immediately upon its severance the whole family become unclean. In this state they refrain from the Homa sacrifice and the worship of the deities and from repeating the gdyatr¢ and many other ceremonies, contenting themselves with interior remembrance of the.Deity. If this takes place in a Brahman’s family, his children and relations to the fourth degree of consanguinity are ceremonially unclean for ten days; the relations of the fifth degree, for six days; those of the sixth degree, for four days; of the seventh, for three; of the eighth for one day and night, and those of the ninth continue so for four pahrs. At the close of these periods they are freed after ablution of the body. But the usual rule is that a Brahman together with his kindred to the seventh degree, are unclean for ten days; a Kshatriya, for twelve days; a Vaigya and the superior! class of Sidra for fifteen days, and the.

refers to. The granulation of the shag- reen is produced by embedding in the leather when it ia soft, the seeds of a kind of chenopodium and afterwards shaving down the surface. The green colour is produced by the action of sal- ammoniac on copper filings.

1 By these are meant the Ahir and Kurmé castes or shepherds and agricul- turists, from whose hands Br&hmans and Kshatriyas will drink, the inferior Sadras being Chamdrs and the like who are held unclean,

FESTIVALS. 317

inferior Stidras for thirty days. During this time strangers avoid associ- ating or eating with them. This state is called Sdteka (impurity from childbirth). A prince and his attendants, his physician, cook, overseer, and other servants of ihe crown are not subjected to this condition, but on the sixth day certain prayers are offered to the Deity and rejoicings are made, and the mothor and child are bathed.

The day after the expiration of the Siétaka, they name the child and look in the astronomical table for the sigu and station of the rising of the moon. The initial of his name is taken from the letter which is there- with connected! and a-name of more than four letters is considered blame- worthy. Inthe fourth month they bring it into the sun before which time it is never carried out of the liouse. In the fifth month they bore the lobe of the right ear. In the sixth month, if the child be a boy, they place various kinds of food around him, and feed him with that for which he shows a preference. If it be a girl, this is not done till the sixth or seventh month. When it is a year old, or in the third year, they shave his head, but by some this is delayed till the fifth year, by others till the seventh, and by others again till the eighth year, when a festival is held. In the fifth year they send him to school and meet together in rejoicing.

They observe the birthday and annually celebrate it with a feast, and at the close of each year make a knot on a thread of silk. He is invested with the sacred string at the appointed time. At each of these occasions they perform certain works and go through some extraordinary ceremonies.

THE NUMBER OF FESTIVALS.

Certain auspicious days are religiously observed and celebrated as festivals. These are called te’ohdr and a few of them are here indi- cated. . .

1 This requires explanation. The day is divided into 60 dandas=24 hours, the four divisions Sf which allow 15 dandas to every six hours. Now each of the 28 asterisms (v. p. 21) is symbolised by a fancifal name of four letters: e. g., the first asterism Afvint is called chu, chdé, ché, Id, the second Bharant 16, lu, Ud, ld. To each of the periods of six hours o letter ig allotted, as cha from 6 a.m. to noon, ché from noon to 6, p.m., chd from 6 p.m. to midnight, and dé from midnight toGa,m. A child born inthe first period

41 4

has a name beginning with chd#, as Churé- mini: in the second with ché, as Chdét- Rdm, and so on. This is termed the rag name from <If the passage of any planet through a sign of the Zodiac. A second name is subsequently given when the child is two or three, at the fancy of the paronts without any ceremonial ob- servance. Thus a& man’s rdf name will be Panna Lal, and the name by which he is generally onlled, Damodar. This practice is mostly confined to the more onltivated classes.

318 FESTIVALS.

During the month of Chatira (March-April, Hind. Chait) eight occur: — (1). Srishtyddi,! the first lunar day of the light half of the month. (2). Nava-rdira (Hind. Nau-rdtr) ; the nine first nights of the year are chiefly employed in ceremonial worship and prayer and pijgrims from afar assem- ble at Nagarkot (Kingra) and other places dedicated to the worship of Durga. (3). Sri-paiichamé, the fifth lanar day (of the light half of the month)? (4). Asokdshtami,? the eighth of the light half of the month. (5). Réma-navamt, ninth day of the light haif of the month, the birthday of Rama, (¢). Chaturdaga (Hind. Chaudas) thefourteenth. (7). Pirna-mdsa (Hind. Péremast), the fifteenth. (8). Parivé (Sansk. Prati- pada) the sixteenth calculating from the Sukla-pakshe or light fortnight, or counting from Krishaa-pakshe (dark fortnight), the lst, and according to the computation by which the beginning of the month is taken from Krishza- pakshd, this day will fall in the beginning of the second month which is Vaisékha. Therefore with those who hold this view, the festival will occur on the Ist of Krishna-paksha which preceded the aforesaid Sukla-paksha,* and so with all the festivals that fall in Krishna-paksha, the difference of 2 month one way or the other arises between the two methods of calculation.

Daring Vaiédkha (April-May) there are four :—(1). Tg (Sansk. Triti- ya), the third lunar day of the light fortnight, the birthday of Paragurama.§ (2). Saptamé, the seventh. (3). Chaturdasi, the fourteenth, the birthday of Nara-Sinha. (4). Amdvasa, the thirtieth.

During the month of Jyeshtha (Hind. Jeth, May-June), there are three :—(1). Chaturthi, the fourth lunar day. (2). Navamd, the ninth. (3). Dasami, the tenth which is called Dasa-hara.®

_

\ ‘he transliteration is incorrect. The begina the month with the MXrishna

luni-solar year of Vikramfditya begins from this festival.

2 Dedicated to the worship of Laksh- mi, the goddess of prosperity, wife of Vishna.

8 Asoka ia the tree Jonesia A Soka which is hold sacred. Ina grove of these trees Sita, the wife of Rama, was imprisoned in Lanka by Ravana. Rdmdyana ; Sun- dar Khanda,

4 Of. p. 17. Vol. Il. The two modes of reckoning, viz., by the mukhya chdn- dra or principal lunar month which ends with the conjunction, and the gauna- ehdndra or secondary lanar month which ends with the opposition, are both autho- rized by the Purinds. The latter mode

paksha or dark half of the month, in which the differences of reckoning oo- our; the Sukle-pakshe or light half from which the mukhya-chdndra reckoning begins, is the same, of course, for both modes, and therefore ne difference can arise. Cf. Sir W. Jones. “ Lunar months of the Hindas.” Works 1. 874,

6 It is also sacred to Gauri, wife of Mahfdeva; the image of Gauri is wash- ed and dressed, lamps are lit and per- fames offered and abstinence from eat- ing is enjoined, aud they play with swings. This festival is for women only. Cf. Albirdni, Chap. LXXXI, on these festivals.

8 Vulg. Dusserah. There are two fes-

FESTIVALS, 319

In the month of A’shddha (Hind, Asdrh, June-July), the seventh, eighth and eleventh, and according to some the fifteenth.!

In the month of Srévana (Hind. Sdwan, July-Aug.) three:—(1. Purna- mésa, the fifteenth of the light half of the month. This is the greatest festival with the Br&hmans throughout the year upon which they fasten the amulet called raksha-bandhana on the right wrists of the principal people. It is a cord of silk and the like, decorated by some with jewels and pearls. (2), (Ndga-paiichamz)?® the fifth-of the light fortnight.

In the month of Bhé:lra-pada (Hind, Bhitdon, Aug.—Sept.) there are five; the fourth, fifth, sixth, twelfth, and twenty-third. The latter is the birthday of Krishna. Some hold this to be on the eighth of (the dark half of) Srévana.8 ~

In the month of A’fvin there are two. As aforesaid (in the month of Chaitra) nine nights are accounted holy and the tenth (of the light fort- night) is called Dasa-hara, According to their writings the festival pre- viously mentioned is called Dasa-hara and this is known as the Vijay-dasam?. On this day they pay particular attention to their horses and decorate thom and place green sprouts of barley on their heads, and all workmen venerate their tools, and it is held as-s, great festival and particularly for the Ksha-

tivals, viz., that in the text, which is the birthday of Ganga, in which whoever bathes in the Ganges is said to be puri- fied from ten sorts of sins, and the second on the 10th of ASvin Sukla-pak- sha (Hind. Kitdr, Sept.-Oct.) in honour of Darga. This worship contiunes for uine nights, and images of Devi are thrown into the river. Raima is gnaid to have marched against R&vana on this day and hence it is called Vijay-ddsamt or the Victorious Tonth. It is held as a most anspicious day for all undertakings and especially for operations of war. A fourth festival, the Bhtmatkdda & is held on the llth Swkla-paksha in honour of Bhima, the son of Pénda. It is com- monly called Nirjalatkddast, and is a fast on which, aa the name betokeng, ovon water is nop drunk, Another Bhi. maikddagt ia in the Sukla-paksha of Md- gha (Jan-Feb).

i This is called the Vy4sa-pija, in honour of Vydsa the divider of tho

?

Vedas. He is supposed to be represented on this festival by the teachers or gurus % Abnl Fazl has omitted the name. A snake is worshipped on this day to preserve children from their bites. The text also omits altogether the third festival, the Srdvant, held by Bréhmans only, spent in reading the Vedas and bathing and changing the sacred thread. 8 That (is with those who take tho beginning of the month from Krishua- paksha of Sravana or Bhédra-pada, it wilt fall on the 8th; with those who begin with the folowing Sukla-paksha of Bhé- dra-pada, it will fall on the 23rd of Bhadra -Asvin, making the Qifferenco of the month as before stated. The festival of the fourth is called Ganesha-chaturtht, the birthday of Ganesha. The fifth is Risht-paichamf, a fast in honour of the Rishis. ¥, The’sixth is called Lalitd Shash- fAt, and in Hindi Lalhi chhaj and algo Gayhat as Albivéui observes (XVI). In Kanauj‘it is known by tho latter namo,

320 FESTIVALS.

triyas. (Another) they call Sréddha-Kanya-gata! on the fifteenth of Krishna- paksha of the month of Agvin by common consent, but those who compute the beginning of the month from its Krishna-paksha place it in the month preceding. During these fifteen days (of the dark fortnight) they give alms in the name of their deceased aucestors, either in money or kind, as has been related.

In the month of Karrtika (Oct.-Nov.) there are six. The Ist or parivd, This is called Baliréjya or the principality of Bali? On this day they deck themselves and their cattle and buffaloes.

The second,’ ninth, eleventh and twelfth are also festivals. The thir- tieth is the Dipdli or row of lamps (Hind. Diwdl?). A difference occurs in the calculation of its date. According to the Sukla-paksha computation, it is as above stated, but by the Krishnza-paksha this is called the 15th of Margasirsha’ (Hind. Aghan, Nov.~Dec.) and they therefore hold this festival on the 15th of the Krishra-paksha of Karttika. Lamps are lit as on the (Mu- hammedan) festival of Shab-i-bardt. It begins on the 29th, and this night is considered auspicious for dicing and many strange traditions are told regarding it. It is the greatest of the festivals for the Vaisya caste.*

In the month of Mérgastrsha, there are three, viz., the seventh of Suk-

la-paksha and the eighth and ninth of Krishna-paksha. In both these last difference of computation as above occurs. In the month of Pausha (Hind. Pis., Dec.-Jan.) the eighth of Sukla-

paksha is held sacred.

In the month of Mdgha (Jan.Feb.) there are four, viz,, the third,

1 Kanya-gata ig the dark lanar fort-

night of this month and the name and period mark the position of a planet, especially Jupiter in the sign Virgo (Kanya). -8 This ig the name of the Daitya prince whom Vishnu subdned in the dwarf incarnation. (v. p. 288). A great denl of gambling goes on for three nights. They give alms and bathe and make presents of areca nuts to each other. It is anid that Lakshmi, wife of Vasudeva, once a year on this day liber- ates Bali from the nether world and allows him to go about the earth. Cf. Albirdai.

3 ‘The second is called the Fuma-deitiy¢

(Hind. Jam-dutydé) when brothers and sisters dress up and exchange gifts and compliments in allusion to the at- tachment between Yama and his twio sister Yamuna. He is .regarded in post- Vedic mythology as the Judge of the dead and is regent of the 8. quarter. The ninth is called kishmdndu-navamt, presents being made to Brihmana of the ktishmdnda (Hind. kowhrd), a kind of gourd (Cucurbita pepo). The 11th is the Utthdnaikddast when Vishyu is said to riso from sleep. The Diwdlt is well- known, the nocturnal illaminations be- ing in honour of Karttikeya.

4 It is auspicious for all andertakings eonnected with commerce.

CEREMONIES AT DEATH. 321

fourth, fifth and seventh. On the fifth a great festival is held called Vasanta in which they throw different coloured powders upon each other, and sing songs.

This is the beginning of the spring among the Hindus. Although this is much regarded among the people, yet in old works the seventh was considered the greater festival.!

In the month of Phdalguna (Feb.-March) there are two. The fifteenth of Sulla-paksha is called the Hvl/* and extends from the 13th to the 17th. They light fires and throw various articles into them and fling coloured pow- der upon each other and indulge in much merriment. It is a great festival among the Stidras. The night and day of the 29th are held sacred : the night is called Siva-rdivi. Some make this occur on the 14th of Krishna-paksha and by this computation the Siva-rdtri falls on the 14th of the dark fort- night of Phdlguza,’ a month earlier. They keep the night in vigil, narrat- ing wonderful legends. The Brahmans also consider five days in each month sacred, the 8th, 14th, 15th and 30th, and Sankrdénti which is the day on which the sun passes from one Zodiacal sign into another.

Regarding the celebration of the various festivals marvellous legends are told, and they are the subject of entertaining narratives.

Ceremonies AT Deata.

When a person is near unto death, they take him off his bed and lay him on the ground and shave his head, except in the case of a married Woman, and wash the body. The Bréhmans read some prayers over hint and alms are given. They then plaster the ground with cowdung aud strew it over with green grass and lay him down at full length face up- wards, with his head to the north and his feet to the south. If a river or tank be hard by, they place him up to his middle in water. When his dissolu-

1 This festival is held in honour of Mahadeva. The powdors are made of rice-meal, Indjan arrowroot, Singhéra (water chestnut, trapa bisptnosa), or barley-meal, and dyed with bakam-wood (Casalpina sappan): only two colours are allowed, yellow or red.

& ‘ Holiké’ is said to be the name of a fomale Rékshasf, killed and burnt by Siva on this day, but her penitence for the fault of a too turbulent disposition secured for her the promiso of this annual colebration in hor remembrance, and that all who performed this wor-

.)

ship, in this month, would be prosperous’ for the year. See Mahdtmya of Phdi- guna, which quotes the Bhavishya Purdya Songa are sung in honour of Krishna of the broadest and coarsest kind.

8 V. p. 298, n. 2. It is mentioned in some Dictionaries as occurring on the 14th of the dark half of Mdgha, but this is also counted as Philguiza by those who begin the month with the Kyishna-paksha, the same fortnight be- ing either one or the other, according to the order of the primary or secondary

lunar months.

322 CEREMONIES AT DEATH.

tion is at hand they put into his mouth Ganges water, gold, ruby, diamond and pearl, and giveaway a cow in charity, and place upon his breast a leaf of the Tulasi (Ocymum sanctum)! which they hold sacred, and draw the sectarial mark on his forehead with a particular kind of earth?

When he expires, his youngest son,’ his brother, and his pupil and particular friends shave their heads and beards. Some defer this till the tenth day. The body dressed in its loin-cloth is wrapped in a sheet. The corpse of a married woman is dressed in the clothes she wore in life. The body is borne to the river side and a funeral pile of Paldsa-wood (Butea fron- dosa) is formed, upon which the body is laid. Prayers are read over ghee, which is put into the mouth and a few grains of gold are put into the eyes, nostrils, ears and other apertures. It is advisable that the son should set fire to the pile, otherwise the youngest brother of the deceased or, failing him, the eldest. All his wives deck themselves out and with cheerful countenances are burnt together with him in their embrace.* <A pile of ligoum aloes and sandal-wood is fired for those who are wealthy. The wives are first advised not to give their bodies to the flames.

This mode of expressing grief among Hindu women applies to five classes :—(1). Those who expire on learning the death of their husbands and are burnt by their relations. (2). Those who out of affection for their husbands voluntarily consign themselves to the flames. (3). Who from fear of reproach surrender themselves to be burnt. (4), Who undergo

• this death regarding it as sanctioned by custom. (5). Who against their will are forced into the fire by their relatives.

l According to some accounts this was one of the treasures produced from the ocean at its churning. Tulasi was

a0 Sim} Vol. VI, pal37. A horri- ble acene of this kind is described by him in his jourhey from Mooltan to Delhi. The sight of the victim upon whom logs and planks were thrown to prevent her moving and hor screams, caused him nearly to fall from his horse in a faint, Ibid, p. 141. Cicero believed

a nymph beloved of Krishna and was turned into the shrab that bears her name. In Sir W.Jones’s “ Select Indian Plants.”” (Vol. II, Works), it is described under its Sanskrit synonym, Parndsa.

% This is cither from the banka of the Ganges if possible, or ashes from the Homa fire.

3 The ceremonies of burial are under the authority of the youngest son, and in his absence, of the eldest. The inter- vening sons have generally no ceremonial powers.

• This fact is vouched for by Ibn Ba-

tontah, Ido cat uxbile Lit typd

that the wives disputed the privilege of being burnt alive, and that the honour was conferred on the favourite, ‘ Mulieres vero in India, chm est cujusvis earam vir mortuus, in certamen judiciamque veniunt, quam plarimum ille dilexerit. Que est victrix, ea leeta, prosequentibus, suis, nna cum yiro in rogum imponitur: illa victa, mesta discedit.’ Tusc. Ques. L. ¥. 27,

CEREMONIES AT DEATH. 393

Tf an ascetic (Sannydsin) dies or a child that has not yet teethed, the body is consigned to earth or launched into the river, and they do not burn those who disbelieve the Vedas or who are not.bound by the rules of any of the four castes, nor a thief, nor a woman who has murdered her husband, nor an evil liver, nor a drunkard. :

If the corpse cannot be found, an effigy of it is made with flour and leaves of the Butea frondosa and reeds covered with deer-skin, a cocoanut serving for the head. Over this prayers are said and it is then burnt.

A pregnant woman is not suffered to be burnt till after her delivery. Ifthe man dies on a journey, his wives burn themselves with his garments or whatever else may belong to him. Some women whom their relations have dissuaded from burning themselves, or whom their good sense has convinced that burning is a fictitious griof, live afterwards in such unhappiness that death becomes preferable.

On the day on which the corpse is burnt, the relations and friends repair to the riverside and undo their hair, put on the sacred string across the other shoulder, and bathe themselves and place two handfuls of sesame-sced on the bank. They then collect in any open space and the friends of the deceased after a consolatory address to the mourners, accom- pany them home, the younger members of the family walking in front and the elders following. When they reach the door of the house, they chew a bit of Nimba leaf! (Hind. Nim, Melia Azadirachta) and then enter.

On the fourth day after the death of a Brahman, the fifth after the death of a Kshatriya, the ninth and tenth after that of a Vaisya and Siidra respectively, the person who had set fire to the funeral pile, proceeds to the place, performs some ceremonies, and collecting the ashes and remnants of bones together, throws them into the Ganges. If the river be at any dis- tance, he places them in a vessel and buries them in the jungle, and, ata convenient time, exhumes them, puts them into a bag of deer-skin and con- veys them to the stream, and concludes with certain ceremonies.

If the deceased is a Brahman, all his relations for ten days sleep on the ground om a bed of grass and eat only what is sent to them, or what may be procured from the market (cooking nothing for themselves).

During ten days, the person who had fired the pile cooks some rice and milk and makes an offering of it as nourishment to the new body of the deceased. When the natural body dies, the soul takes a subtle frame which they call Preta. Their belief is that while it is invested with this

1 The taste ig extremely bitter and & This is properly the spirit of the the leaves are also used medicinally ag deceased before the obsequial rites are poultices for wounds and to reduce in- performed and is supposed still to haunt flammation. its abode. Cf., p. 162. n. 3.

C)

824 ; COMERS INTO INDIA.

hody, it cannot enter Paradise, and during the space of ton days this body continues in being. Subsequently, on the conclusion of certain ceremonies, it abandons this form and.assumes another fitted for Paradise, and by the performance of manifold works, it finally receives its heavenly body. For other castes the time of detention (in the Preta) continues throughout their respective Siitaka! periods.

Some further ceremonies for Brdhmans and others take place on the eleventh and twelfth days also.

If a Brahman dies out of his own house and information of his death is received within ten days of it, his family during the remaining period of those days, continue unclean. If the news arrives after the ten days, they are unclean for three days, but his son, at whatever time he hears of it, is unclean for ten days. If the death:take place before investiture with the sacred string, or (if a child) before it has teethed, or of seven months, the impurity lasts one day, and is removed by bathing. If the deceased child be above this age up to two years old, the impurity lasts one day and night : from the time of cutting the hair? to that of investiture with the sacred thread, three days and nights. For the death of a daughter up to ten years of age, ablution suffices to purify. After that age till the time of pro- posal when she is betrothed before marriage, there is one day’s impurity. After betrothal, the father’s family and that of the suitor are unclean for three days.

Merirorious Manner oF Deata.

The most efficacious kinds of death are five :—(1). Abstaining from food and drink till dissolution. (2). Covering the person with broken dried cowdung like a quilt or pall, and at the feet setting it on fire which creeps gradually from the toe-nails to the hair of the head, while the mind is fixed on divine contemplation till death. (3). Voluntarily plunging into snow. (4). At the extremity of Bengal where the Ganges divided into a thousand channels falls into the sea, the foe of his carnal desires wades into the sea, and confessing his sins and supplicating the Supreme Being, waits till the alligators come and devour him. (5). Cutting the throat at Ilahabas at the confluence of the Ganges and the Jamuna.

Hach of these modes is described with its appropriate details.

COMERS INTO INDIA.

Forasmuch as the fenced city of tradition is unfrequented and the wastes of legend are stony places, knowledge that seeks after truth kept

ee A CE 1 See p. 817, | 9 Cf, Miiller’s Hist. Sansk, Lit. p. 204.

COMERS INTO INDIA. . 325

me from connection therewith, but the decree of fate unexpectedly drew me from silence into speech, and intent on freshening the interest of my narrative, I have been led into entering upon a multiplicity of details. A review of the general history of Hindustan has induced me to mention the comers into this vast country, and thus by recalling the memory of the great give a promise of currency to this important exposition.

_, ADAM,

They say that Adam after his fall from Paradise was thrown on the island of Ceylon, his consort on Juddah,! Azrail in Sistan, the Serpent in Ispaéhdn, and the Peacock in Hindustan. Imaginative writers have embel- lished this fable with abundant dethiils, bat in Sanscrit works which treat ‘of the events of myriads of past ages not a trace of this story is to be found.

Hosyane

Was the son of Siyamak and grandson of Kayfmars, and succeeded his great ancestor, ruling with justice and liberality. He is accounted the first to whom the name of sovereign virtually applies. He came to

India where he displayed the lustre of virtue. The work called ‘ Eternal Wisdom’ is said to be the frait of his mature experience.

1 This is the trae orthography, but commonly written Jiddah, on the Red Sea. Azrdil is the angel of death who though connected with the creation of Adam, having been sent by God to bring vari- ous kinds of olay from the earth for the formation of his body, and having falfilled the mission in which Gabriel and Michael had previously failed, is not men- tioned as shoring hie sin or punish- ment. Ibjis or Satan mnst be here meant whom the chroniclers unanimonsly de- clare to have been cast out of Paradise, thongh they differ as to the place of his fall, Masadd{f naming Baisin; and Tabari, Simndn near Jurjan. We pene- trated into Paradise notwithstanding the vigilance of its porter, by entering the mouth of the serpent that had on one occasion strayed outside. The lat- ter was at that time a quadrnped, bnt being cursed at the fall, was deprived of

42 9

its feet and condemned to the form of a reptile, The peacock is said to have con- ducted Eve to the forbidden tree. At its expulsion it was deprived of its voice, The relation of these paerilities may be pursued in Tabari, Masaddi, D’Herbelot, and in Sale’s Koran, and in most general histories of Muhammadan chroniclers | who are never more at home or more precise than when referring to events of which they can know nothing.

2 Tirdausi says that he roigned 40 years and devotes to him as many verses of his poem. He imputes to him the discovery of fire from the concussion of two stones, but not a syllable of his visit to India. The work Javiddn Khi- rad or ‘Eternal Wisdom’ is mentioned by Malcolm. Sir W. Jones thinks he was probably contemporary with Minos which scarcely fixes his date, but what is of more importance, he obtained by merit

326 COMERS INTO INDIA.

Hafiz,! in his Istitdlah (Perillustris) says that when Mamin conquered Khurasan, the various chiefs sent presents to his court. The governor of Kabul sent a sage named ‘Diban? on an embassy to Mamin and mentioned in his letter of homage that he was despatching to his court au offering of great price, than which nothing more valuable was known. The Caliph on receiving this information appointed his minister Fadhl (Ibn-i-Sahl)* to inquire what it referred to. The envoy replicd that the allusion was to himself. They said to him, “How doth a distinction so great concern such as thee?” He answered, “In enlightened knowledge, judicious counsel, and right guidance,” and he spoke such parables of wisdom that all were amazed, It happened that at this time the Caliph designed to enter upon hostilities against his brother Muhammad u’l Amin and all parties were endeavouring to dissuade him from it. He therefore consult- ed Dubdu, whose clear-sighted reasoning confirmed his resolution of march- ing into I’rdk and pressing on the war. The saye’s advice was the means of resolving all political difficulties. Mamudn treated him with great favour and commanded that a large sum of gold should bo bestowed upon him, Diban excused himself saying, “It is not the practice of my sovereign to allow his envoy to receive anything, but there is a work called ‘ Eternal Wisdom’* composed by the farsighted intellect of Hushanz and is said to

to be in Maddin. On the conquest of that conntry, when the Caliph ob- tains the work let him graciously bestow it upon me.” His proposal was assented to. When Maddin was taken, Le pointed out that in a certain quarter of the city, by a certain tree there was a large stone. This they

or adulation the epithet of Peshddd or.

the Lawgiver, whence the Peshdadian kings took the name of their dynusty.

1 See Vol. II. p 36, n. 4. OF the Tarikh of Hafiz Abré, no copy was known by Sir H. Elliot, to exist in India. The Iatitaélnh is not mentioned by Héji Kha- lifah under that title.

2 The reader will recall the story of the Grecian king and his physician Di- bin in the thirteenth of the “ Arabian Nights”

8 He was Mamin’s favourite minister and dominated him to such an extent that as Ibn-Khallikan says, he once out- bid him for a female slave he wished to purchase, He was highly accomplished and noted for his skill in astrology.

He predicted the success of Téhir Ibn al Husayn whom al Mamin despatched against his brother al Amin, See his life in Ibn-Khall. If. 472,

4 This is known to Enrope as the Fables of Pilpay, or Bedpai, vizier to the as fabulous D&bilishim, king of the Indios, and is celebrated in the East by as many nomes as the translations it has undergone.

5 The ancient Ctesiphon. It passed into the possession of the Arabs in the Caliphate of Omar in A. D. 637. Daring the insurrection agdinst al Maman by the Alide party under the leading of Aba Suraya, Maddin was taken by tho latter, but recaptured daring the same year, A, D, 8ld.

COMERS INTO INDIA. 327

were to lift and to dig down till they came to a subterranean chamber in which were a number of chests and a large quantity of valuables, none of which were to be touched as the time for removing them had not arrived. In a certain corner of the chamber a box of acertain shape would be found which they were to bring out, wherein would be discovered the Sharp-eyed and experienced men were sent in search, Some portion of this

work they sought. and all happeued exactly as he had described. work was translated into Avabit at the pressiug insistance of Fadhl, but ag it was treasured by Duiban, he didnot suffer its translation to be com- pleted. Ham

Was the son of Noah. After the subsidence of the deluge he came to Hindustan. Annalists of other countries than this believe the Hindus to be descended from him.

Jamsufp

Was the son of Tabmirag Devband or the binder of the demons.! When by the Almighty decrees, he became a wanderer in the desert of mis- fortune, he happened to pass through Zabulistin. For sixteen years le dwelt in Kabul and secretly married the daughter of the prince Kaurnak, When the news was bruited abroad the prince bade him, one

1 He receives this surname in the Shah Namah. His justice and vigour cleansed the country of crime, and pro- duced the rebellion of the Devs or d-mons, Probably the barbarous neighbouring peo- ples who resented his iron control. Thoy were defeated by him and bound, and were saved from extermination by pro- mising to instruct him in knowledge. They taught hira the art of writing in neurly thirty languages of which Tir- dausi enumerates six, which were pos- sibly all he had heard of. Tabari states thas Jamshid was snid to be the brother of Tahamiras. He introdaced the solar year among the Persians, the first day of which, when according to Tabari he administered justice in open darbar, was called Nauroz when the sun enters Aries. His prosperity turned his bead and he

proclaimed himself a deity, which dis- )

gasted his subjects and Ied to the inva- sion of the Syrian prince Zohék, the des- cendant of Shedd, and according to some the nephew of Jamshid. Malcolm says that the wanderings of the exiled prince are wrought into a tale which is amongst the most popular in Persian romance. He was pursued throngh Soistiin, India and China by tho agents of Zohék aud carried before his enemy who, after every contamely he could inflict, placed him between two boards and had him sawn asunder. When the news of his death reached his widow in Seistdén she put an end to her life by poison. The son of this marriage was Atrut, whose son was Garshaep, whose’son was Narim&n, father of Sam, whose son Za! was the father of Rustam. See Malcolm. Hist. Persia, I. 3, and Atkinson’s Abridgment of the Shah Namah.

328 COMERS INTO INDIA.

night, take his departure for Hindustan. The poct Asadi) says of this

night:

Black as an Ethiop grew the night whose veil O’er the moon’s face its sable shadow flung,

Sad as the stifled sob whose scarce-heard wail Dies on the ear from some despairing tongue.

For some time he employed himself in the profession of arms and when his secret was on the point of being discovered, he set out for China by way of Bengal, and on the road fell in with the emissaries of Zohak.

ZousKR

Was the son of Mardis, the Arabian. He passed into India several

times as Asadi says:

Zohék the conqueror ere the year had gone,

To Kabul? swiftly passed from Babylon, Resolved to launch o’er India’s plains once more The invading legions he had led before.

GarsHspe

Was the son of Utrut.2 The Garshédsp Ndémah narrates his invasion of India and the astonishing actions in which he engaged.

Isranpydr oF THE BRAZEN BODY

Was the son of Gushtdsp,* the son of Lubrasp. In obedience to the commands of his father he propagated the doetrines of Zoroaster, and his

1 The quotation mast be from the Garshdsp Némah of Hakim Asadi of Tas, one of the seven poets at the court of Mahm6d of Ghazni, who had often re- quested him to undertake the Shéh Nimsh. The poet declined it on account of his ange. Mewas the master of Fir- dansi. His “Controversies” are well known, especially that between ‘ Night and Day.’ Some of these are published in the Majma-u’l-Pusahé. Ihave not met with a complete copy of this poet.

2 The Majma-u’l Fugahé, rightly I think, reads Zibul for Kébal. Malcolm considers him to have been the Assyrian monarch who conquered Persia, and that his long reign iucludes that part of anci-

ent history in which the latter kingdom was subject to Assyria. I. VII.

8 Malcolm gives Atrut, bat the Die- tionaries write the name as I have ren- dered it. Firdausi makes him the son of Zav. He was the lest of tho Pesh- dadian monarchs. Jf Sir W. Jones quotes the chronologers correctly, Rome was built in this roign, Athens was first governed by Aychons, Dido builé Carth- age, Homer wrote his poems, the Pyra- mids were raised, the Assyrians founded 2 powerfal dynasty, and according to Newton, Sabaco the Ethiopian, invaded Egypt.

4 The conjectare that Gushdfsp was the Darius Hystaspes of the Greeks ac-

(

COSIERS INTO INDIA. 329

zeal caused the wniyersal acceptation of thab creed. He honoured the in- stitutions which were the bequest of Faridin, applying them after his own direction. Tisdausi thus alludes tohim :

This mighty warrior of a line of kings From clime to clime his rapid conquest wings ; Q’er Greece and India his proud. standards fly

To unknown seas where yealms, of darkness lie,

. Nigtacy, son or Garsadse, THE son.pF Unecr. e ‘ 7 men’s 84m, son oF NAriatin. —— Zhu, son or Shar. —_—— Faraaarz, son of Rusrast.

Bagwan,! son or Isranpvdn.

When the astvolgers announced to Garshisp the future sovereignty of Bahmon and the overthitow of his own family, the devastation of Zébulistin, the slaughter of the descendants of Rustam, the disentombment of himself and ‘his sons, and the burning of their bodies, he enjoined his sons to erecé

cords with the chronology of Herodotus ; ‘and starting from this first secure footing amid tho quicksands of fable, the iden- tification, of Isfandyar with Xerxes is historically probablo. The arguments in favour of this hypothosis aro marshalled by Malcolm who-reconciles: tho exaggora- bions of tho Gagoks and Porsians in its support, with brevity and address. The Grecks speak of Xorxes as king, buat Per- siau authors make Bahman succeed his grandfather Gashtisp. Isfandyir com- manded hie fathor’s avmies and was por- haps associated with-him in tho monarchy, ‘bat though Viceroy of Balich, and possess- ing quasi-regal powor he novor possessed the namo of king, an@ ho was killed by Rustam, acvording to Firdansi, during his father’s lifetime. For tho introdue- i]

tion of Zoroastvianiam, seo Malcolm, Chap. Vil. It was unknown to Horo- dotus, :

‘t Whatever donbt may exist rogard- ing tho identification of Xorxes with Isfandyér, there is little or none re- garding that of Bnhman with Avtax- orxes Longimauns. Bahman was known to the Persian historians as Ardishix Dardzdast, tho similarity of tho epithet adding conolusive eyidence to the simi- ‘urity of the name. Rustam, though he had unyillingly and in bis owa do- fonco slain Isfandyaér, tho fathor of Balunen, nevertheless protected his son. Bahbman on his accession avenged hig fathor’s death by that of his slayor, wasted his horoditary province and pub to death all his family. A coupled in

330 COMERS, INTO INDIA.

his tomb and that of his children at Kanauj in Hindustan. When Garshasp died, Nariman conveyed his remains thither, and on the death of Nariman his body was also taken to that country by Sam. On Sdm’s death, Zal transported his body to the same city whither, likewise, Faramarz car- ried Rustam when he died. When Bahman defeated Zil aud Faramarz and the latter was killed in the engagement, Bahman overran Zabulistan and advanced to Kanauj desiring to view the royal mausuleam. A superstitious awe restrained him from entering it. Each of these four great men in anti- cipation of this event had left a great treasure within it, Among them was the world-displaying mirvor of Kaikhusrau (Cyrus), which at bis death he bequeathed to Rustam, and ninety maunds weight of diamonds belong- ing to Garshasp. Each of them also inscribed ona tablet a brief record of memorable deeds, praying that the conqueror would not desecrate the tomb. Bahman, struck by the sight of these splendid offerings and the prescient sagacity of the gift, fell into a profound melaucholy and with- drew from his previous resolve.

Faramarz, indeed, had twice entered this country, for Rustam after his combat with Barzi by whose mace his arm had been disabled, said to Kaikhusrau, “if my son Faramarz returns this night from India, he will deal with Barzd,” upon which followed his sudden arrival and the overthrow of the latter.

ALEXANDER OF GREECE.

When Alexander had completed the conquest of Fran and Turén and laid the foundations of Marv, Herat and Samarkand, he entered India by Ghaznin and in the neighbourhood of the Panjab gave battle to the Hinda prince, Porus, who had advanced from Kanauj to engage him, and by stratagem put him to rout. From thence he turned to the country of the Brahmans. The chiefs of that region represented to him that if the conqueror sought riches and worldly goods they were destitute of these.

Wisdom and knowledge dwell with us, nor cease To fill our bosoms with untroubled peace :

The earth a couch, the skies their covering lend, So turn our thoughts to oar appointed end.!

Firdansi, incorrectly printed in Murray’s Macan’s Edit. The snbstance of Fir-

Edition of Malcolm, says that ‘when he stood upon his feet; hig closed hand reached below his knee.’ The lines rnan—

gst ete coh 7359 5515 5 and will be found at p. 1228, Vol, LLL. of

dausi’s narrative may be gathered by readers unacquainted with Persian, from the abridgment of Atkinson, the pages of Malcolm, and the X[Xth Chap. of Zoten- berg’s translation of Tabari.

| These lines are taken from Pirdaasi

and yary somewhat from the ordinary (

COMERS INTO INDIA. 331

“Tf thy design be the gathering of knowledge and the search for trath, let those who seek it come not in this guise.” Alexander, therefore, leaving his army, set out at the head of a few followers. A court was held to secure a just hearing and their peculiar views were discussed in audience. The king approved their speech and conduct and announced to them that whatever they desired should be granted. They replied that they had no other wish than that the king should live for ever. He answered that this wish was inconsistent with morttility. They rejoined: “If the instability of worldly things is so evident to your Majesty, why these fatigues in the tyrannous oppression of mankind ?” Alexander for a space bowed his head in humiliation and imputed bis actions to the decrees of fate.

According to some Christian! writers, when the standards of Alexander ‘were raised on the shores of the Indian Ocean, accounts of the island of the Brahmans reached him and he determined to take possession of it. They sent an envoy to him and made the following representation :—“ Sovereign ruler of the world! The fame of thy conquests and thy successes has been constantly in our ears, but what can content a man to whom the pos- session of the world is insufficient? We enjoy no outward splendour, nor bodily vigour that thou shouldst deem us worthy to measure thy prowess in war. The worldly goods that we own are shared in common amongst us, and we are passing rich on what may satisfy our hunger. Our costliest robes are garments worn with age. Our women are not in bondage to adoru- ment for the seduction of hearts, and account no beauty or charm of price, save, that inherited from their mothers. Of our lowly habitations we ask but two things, a shelter in life and in death a grave. We have a king for consi- derations of dignity, not for the admiuistration of justice or law. What

text, where they are not consecutive. The substance of x great deal of what follows in the reply of the Brahmans, is from the same source.

2 The term 4,3 which I have rendered in its usual acceptation may be also ap- plied to the Zoroastrians. Abul Faz) had probably seen or heard of translations from the classics throngh the Jesuit Fathers at the Court of Akbar and con- founded them with the originals. Strabo, Plutarch, Arrian and Porphyrius have Mentioned these Gymnosophists whom Quintus Curtins passes by with the un- Complimentary remark “ Unum agreste

et horridum genus est, qnos Sapiontes vooant.” For the general idea of the letters, Abul Fazl is indebted to Fir- dausi, who in turn in one passngo re- garding the unprofitable questions put by Alexander to confound the Bréhmans, is in agreement with Platarch. The jaztra or isle of the Brahmans is perhaps Brah- manabad, identified by Genl. Cunningham asthe town where Ptolemy was wounded by a poisoned sword (Quintns Cartius IX. 8.), the Harmatelia of Diodorus, de- scribed by him ag the last town of the Brahmans on the river.

$32 COMERS INTO.INDIA.

use would punishment serve in aland where none is wicked and there is no thought of crime?” The sagacious monarch was struck by this affecting address and leaving them their freedom, abandoned his project.

The following letter was addressed by Alexander to Didim, the head of the Braimans; for he had often heard that they did not live as other men. The novelty excited his wonder and made his life seem in- supportable to him:’—“O Didim, after learning thy message, I desire again to be informed of thy precepts and doctrines. If what thou hast represented bears the light of truth and is the result of experience; answer speedily, so that, putting this system to the proof, I also for justice sake and in search of truth, may follow they footsteps.”? Didim thus replied: “What I have stated results from profound knowledge. You have not chosen to believe in its trath and you reject what you do not incline to. Many blameable actions were favourably represented by you in our interview. Now, therefore, with full knowledge believe my words. Hirabud, the Brahman, does not yield to the promptings of desire. Con- tent with the measure of his needs, he opens not the door of greed. Our food is not such as the four elements cannot easily supply. The earth gives us of its produce. In our meals intemperance has no place, for this reason we have no need of medicine or physician, and thus we enjoy per- petual well-being. We are not indebted to each other for assistance. We Bréhmans have equality in all things; what room thén is there for indi- gence? In a land where the seeds of arrogance and vain glory grow not, universal poverty is consummate fortune. We have no governor, for

1 This crabbed and obscurely-worded sentence is capable of a different, but in my opinion, not so sntisfactory an inter- pretation. The name Dédtm in the text is not in Firdausi. It occurs in Plutarch (Alex. LXXXVI.) and in Arrian (Anab. VII. 2.) as Dandamis; in Strabo (LXIV.) aa Mandanis.

3 Thia probnbly refers to the embassy of Onesicritns to the Gymnosophists, who endeavoured to persuade some of them to return with him to Alexander’s camp. Plutarch says that Calanus in- solently told him to divest himself of hig robe in order to hear his pre- cepts in nakedness, symbolical doubtless of humility and ignorance. He was however induced by Taxila to visit

Alexander who retained him in his suite with distinguished favour. He displayed to that monarch an emblem of his em- pire by stretching a buil’s hide before him that had shrank from dryness. Placing his feet on one end of it, he caused the other extremities to rise up, and making thus the circuit of the hide, he showed the king that by stand- ing in the middle, the sides wonld lie evenly, and that in like manner, he should not absent himself for any period from the centre of hig dominions. Tis self- chosen death by burning at Pasargade in Persia, when suffering {rom a fit of cho- lic, is told by Arrien, Diodorus, and Plutarch,

COMERS INTO INDIA, 333

our actions are not subjects for penal inquiry. We disapprove of a variety of creeds for they are produced through exceeding unrighteousness and manifold iniquities. Our only religion is the worship of conscience. From What it restrains us we withhold our hearts. We do not submit to the tyranny of the pursuit of wealth for it fosters greed and brings disappoint- ment in its train. We disdain idleness and hold itin reproach. We are nut rendered averse from the delights of wedlock by incapacity, for all things are in our power as we can also ‘forego them. From the sun we receive warmth, from the dews moisture. Our thirst is quenched from the stream and we have no conch but the earth. Desire does not rob us of sleep, nor leave us a prey to care. We lord it not over our equals through pride; we seek service from none save of our own bodies, for we consider the body subservient to the spirit. We bake not stone in the fire for the taising of palaces, for we dwell in the hollows of the earth according to the measure of our needs, nor do we go in fear of the violence of the wind hor of storms of dust, for there we are safer than in houses of reed. We wear no costly robes ; we cover our nakedness with leaves, or to speak truly, with modesty ; our women are at no pains for their adornment, for who can add beauty to the creations of God? and after they are arrayed it profiteth them nothing. Our sexual commerce cometh not sinfully from carnal desire, but continuance of the race is kept in view. Wo are not prone to violence and we lay the dust of discord by the agency of right con. duct, and though dependent on the guidance of destiny we do not resign ourselves to inactivity. Over our dead we erect no edifices in the guise of temples of worship. Give your commands to those who have flung wide for themselves the door of avarice and make their treasure of the things of this world. The ravages of pestilence do not reach us for we defile not the skirts of heaven with evil deeds. We are prepared to meet the vicissitudes of the seasons, and thus summer’s heat and winter’s cold distress us not, and therefore we live careless of the exigencies of those times. We do not deaden our minds with games and shows of elephants and horses and with dano- ing, and whon a desire for worldly pageants seizos us, the sight of the record of your actions withholds us therefrom, and recalling your deeds which indeed more deserve a smile, we are moved to many tears. Worldly splendours make us rejoice in another spectacle, for amidst the varied beau- ties of the universe, the heavens glowing with the radiance of their myriad stars, the sea, coloured by its skies, that clasp3 in a fond embrace its sister earth, the revel of its fish that leap in play from its foam-tossing waves, fill our eyes with delight. Wandering through the woods with the fra- grance of flowers and by running springs in the shade of abundant trees gladdens us in a hundred ways, while the sweet songs of birds render us 43 y

334 COMERS INTO INDIA.

unenvious of all the festal banquets of the rich. Such is the theatre we possess, to share in the enjoyment of which is difficult, to erase it from our minds,acrime. We plough not the seas in barks and vessels. Our hearts are not aflame with passion for the beauty of others, and we affect not the language of flattery or eloquence. The redundance of professed eulogists obtains no credit in this land, for the practice of this base crew which gives to the creature the praise due to God and overlays the purity of faith with error, darkens celestial light with reprehensible deeds. Of a truth you are the most unfortunate of mankind for your worship is sinful and your life its chastisement.”

The monarch thus replied: “If your language reflects the light of truth, I should infer that the Bréhmans alone are robed in the true characteristics of humanity and that this sect are to be regarded as incor- poreal spirits. To hold as altogether unlawful the acts of the natural man is either to be God or to be envious of the Supreme Being. In short these principles in my opinion, proceed from madness not from the fulness of wisdom. O, Didim, I havenot fixed my abode in this hired dwell- _ ing, nor made of a passing rest-house a settled habitation, but prudently looking on myself as a sojourner, hasten, unencumbered with guilt, to my trae country. This language is not the making of self a god, but like dark- minded bigots that are enemies to their own happiness, I do not affect to make the attributes of the Creator the instruments of my salvation. And whosoever under the guidance of a wakeful fortune, abandoning sinful actions, walks in the way of virtue is not a god, but by means of the grace of that Supreme Lord, rises above his fellow men.” The writer continued: “My royal master observes that you call yourselves fortunate in that you have chosen a retired spot of earth where the comings and ~ goings of those without and the busy movement of the world are not heard, and that you consider this praiseworthy as proceedirg from your attach. ment to your hearths and love of your native land. The lowliness and poverty that you cannot avoid is uot worthy of commendation: on the contrary, the Almighty has inflicted this as a punishment for your evil deeds, True merit consists in living abstemiously amid abundant fortune, for ignorance and want cannot exhibit the lustre of virtue. The first cannot see what to avoid, the second has not the means by which it may possess. I, who with all the resources of pleasure and enjoyment at my command, have refrained from them altogether and have sternly chosen a life of toil, am more deserving of a glorious reward.”

Some say that after his victory over Porus, Alexander heard that at the extremity of India, reigned a king called Keayd,! possessed of many vir-

2 This story is told at considerable length by Masaidi in the 26th Chapter

COMERS INTO INDIA. 835

tues, and who for three hundred years had passed a blameless life. ‘To him he despatched a letter that appealed to his hopes and fears, The king read the letter and thus replied: “I have heard of the successes of your Majesty and would deem the honour of a personal visit the source of fortune, but stricken in years, strength fails me. If my excuse is accepted, I will send as an offering four matchless treasures which are the pride of my life; an accomplished and virtuous maiden of uncomparable beauty; a sage un- equalled in penetrating the secrets of the heart; a physician, in healing as the Messiah ; a cup which though drunk from is inexhaustible. Alexander accepted the gifts and despatched Balinds with some experienced associates to bring them. The envoy returned to the court with those treasures of price together with forty elephants of which three were white, and numer- ous other presents. Alexander first essayed to test the Hindu sage. He sent him a bowl full of clavified butter. The sage thrust a few needles therein and sent it back. Alexander fused the needles and forming the metal into a ball returned it to him. The sage fashioning of this a mirror, again sent it back. Alexander placed it in a basin full of water and despatched it.once more. The sage made of the mirror a drinking cup and set it upon the water of the basin. The monarch filled it with earth and returned it. At the sight of this, the sage fell into a profound melancholy and bitterly reproached himself and directed it to be carried back. Alexander was perplexed at this action. The next day he held un assembly of the learned to discuss these mysteries. The seer! was introduced and honourably received. He ‘was of prepossessing exterior, with a noble brow, tall and powerfully made. Alexander on seeing him, thus re- flected: “If to such a presence, he also unites a lofiy wisdom, quickness of penetration and strength of will, he is unparalleled in his genera- tion.” The sago read his hidden thoughts and making a circuit of his face with his forefinger rested it on the point of his nose. When asked for an explanation, he replied: “I understood your Majesty’s reflections aud by this gesture I meant to express that as the nose in the face is one, I also am unique in my time.” He was then fequired to expound the enigmas of the preceding day. He answered: “ Your Majesty wished to signify the profundity of your wisdom, for as the bowl was full so the royal mind was filled with various knowledge and could contain no more. I, on the other hand, showed that as needles could find a place therein, so could other lore find room in your mind. By fashioning the ball

of the ‘ Meadows of Gold.’ The king’s 1 The izdfah after (gfiy in the text name is there Kend. Firdausi’s vorsion is an error,

is somewhat different, bat the name is

Kayd, as in the gext.

336 COMERS INTO INDIA.

your Majesty’s intention was to discover that the clearness of your intellect was not like the bowl of butter in which other things could be contained, bat resembled a ball of steel. The construction into a mirror signified that though steol be hard, it is capable of such polish as to reflect the face. By your sinking the mirror in water, I understood the short- ness of life and the vast extent of knowledge. By fashioning it into a cup, I answered that what sank in water might with skill be made to float; thus also immense erudition may be acquired by severe application and the shortness of life be prolonged. The filling it with earth implied that the end of all things is death, and the return to earth, This was capable of no answer, and I was silent.” Alexander praised his sagacity and penetration and said: “ The profit that I have reaped from India has been my meeting with thee.” He took him into his companionship and intimacy and parted from him only when he left India. The other three treasures also were subjected to a similar ordeal and their worth approved.

Some writers narrate the history of Porus after the particulars re- garding Kayd, and state that he fied without fighting to distant parts and that his dominions were conferred upon another.

Mcni tHe Patyrer.!

His presumption led him to claim the authority of a prophet and he composed a work which he pretended had come down from heaven,

1 This account appears to be taken from Khondemir and agrees in the main with D’Herbelot’s sketch from the same historian. Firdausi makes him a na- tive of China and places his death in the reign of Shéhptir by whom, he says, Mani was flayed alive and his skin staffed with straw as & warning to his followers. The Manichean sect takes its rise from this impogtor who, accord- ing to D’Herbelot, was a Christian priest in the province of Ahwaz and had many controversies with the Jews and Magians and maintained the Indian doo- trine of metempsychosis. He named twelve apostles to preach his doctrines in India and China, and gave them his book called the “ Anghelion.” ‘“ Anghe- lion, c’est & dire VEvangile.” One of his principles was abstinence from all flesh, and he forbade the taking of

animal. life, but his followers became divided into Sddikun or the true, who abstained from the killing of animals, and the Sammdktm or fishmongers, who affected a distinction in their mode of killing, fish not being sacrificial animals. He admitted two principles of good and evil and the dual soul, one bad and crea- ted with the body by the evil principle, and the other the good created by the gooa principlo. He denied free-will and the necessity of baptism. The Mani- cheans were persecuted by several em- perors especially by Jastin and Justi- nien. Baronins relates that a few were found larking in France in 1052, and were hanged by order of the Emperor Henry II. These doctrines had the sole merit of claiming St. Augustine as a con- vert. According to Shahrasténi, Mani was the son of Faten or Fater, and according C

COMERS INTO INDIA. 337

affirming also that he was the Paraclete announced by the Messiah; Sha- pir, the son of Ardshir Babagin favoured him. It was not long before his imposture was discovered and he was condemned to death, but he con- trived to escape by flight. Fors, time he remained in Kashmir and from thence entered India where his doctrines received some acceptance. From thence he went to Turkistin and China and resided chiefly in the eastern parts till his wanderings brought him to a mountain where he discovered a cave which was untrodden by human foot, and to this he brought provi- sions sufficient for 2 year. One-day, in the course of conversation, he said to his followers: “I have been summoned to heaven where I shall remain for a twelve-month: be not troubled at my absence nor withdraw from the worship of God and the practice of virtue. At the end of the year, go, some of you, to a certain mountain and wait in expectation.” Previous to his concealment he had learnt the art of painting in which he had attained incomparable skill. After he had ascended the mountain, he painted some wonderful figures which are celebrated by the name of Artang, or Arzhang,! and at the time that he had said, he came forth with the book in his hand. Those who saw it were filled with amazement. He exclaimed: “ This is not the work of mortals that ye should wonder; I brought it from heaven and it is painted by the angels.” This he brought forward as a witness of his prophetic mission and deceived the ignorant and credulous. He attempted to impose upon Bahrém Gor, the son of Hormuzd the son of Ardshir, but he failed in his purpose, and in this criminal venture staked and lost his life.

Bauriku Gor

Was the son of Yezdejird, the Wicked, of the Sassanian dynasty. Since the lust of the world fills the brain with extraordinary fancies in the first flush of his success he was seized with the frenzy of adventurous travel, and leaving one of the Magi of the line of Bahman, son of Isfandyar, as governor in his stead, he set out for India in a disguise which defied recognition. Jn those parts there was a raging elephant which put the tt

to M. b-Ishék, Fettak b-Abj Berdsim. He was born about A. D. 240, and his birth place differently given in Persia, Babylonia, Nishdpir and Khor&sén. See Dabiatan. Shea and Troyer, I. 205,

1 Hammer Purgstal supposes that the Artang might have been an ensign upon which cabalistic figures were represent- ed, and which the Mongols and Bud-

°

dhists used to call Mani. (Jahrb. dor- Lit. for April, May, June, 1840, p. 28 quoted by Troyer. (Dabistan, I. 205), who refers for a farther account of this por- sonage to Hyde, pp. 281 and Beansobre. Hist. Crit. de Manichée). Ménui is also said to have been the inventor of tha ’tid (as°), or Arabian lyre, the xéAus of the Greeks. ‘Ibid.

338 COMERS INTO INDIA.

a

whole country in terror. Although the bravest warriors had attempted to kill it, they lost but their own lives. Bahrém hearing of tlis%vent arrived at the place and by sheer strength of arm destroyed it. Bho prince of that region received him at liis Court with much favour.! In his vici- nity a powerful enemy had arrived to dispute his sovereignty, and he saw no resource but in the payment of tribute. Bahram dissuaded him from this course, and opposed the invader in person and defeated him. The prince gave him his daughter in marriage, but when he discovered his illustrious descent, he became apprehensive and dismissed him loaded with presents back to his own country. It is said that Bahrém took with him 12,000 musicians; arid many other wonderful adventures are related of him.

Burzdyan?

Nashirwan spent his days in the assiduous pursuit of knowledge, solicitous to discover erudite minds and interesting literary works. He opportunely fell in with a learned Brahman with whom he frequently held familiar discussions. PEnquiry was made regarding the truth of a universal report to the effect that in a certain mountainous part of India certain herbs grew which could restore the dead to life. The Brahman

1 See Vol. Il. pp. 210-215, for the connection of Bahréim Gor with the royal house of Milwah. The adven- tures of this monarch were the subject of a poem by the Persian poet Katibi, and they are amply narrated in the Shabndémah. Firdavsi gives the name of the Indian prince as Shangal. Bah- ram is represented as having fled from Kanayj with his wife after his marriage, being wearied of his splendid exile. The monarch pursues, but after an inter- view becomes reconciled to his depar- tare. He sabsequently visits his son- in-law in Persia escorted by seven sub- ject princes, vis., those of Kébul, Hind, Sind, Sandal, Jandal, Kashmir and Mul- tin. Firdausi gives the number of singers, male and female, as ten thon- sand. These did not accompany him but were furnished by his father-in-law at his request on account of their scarcity in Persia. The poor had complained

that the banquets of the rich were made mirthfal with masic and flowors, and tbat they were themselves despised as destitute of these laxuries. The king langhed and sent for these musicians, gave them each an ox and an ass, and divided amonst them a thousand ass- Joads of grain in order that they should support themselves by agriculture, and give their services free tothe poor. They eat their cattle and corn, and at the end of the year presented themselves before him with emaciated faces, but he dis- missed them saying that they had still their asseg left. Since whieh time they have been a wandering race, with dogs and wolves for companions, and subsist- ing by theft. Shdhnamah.

8 At p. 2 this name has been spelt Barzawayh after the Arabic fashion ag in Sibawayh, Nifbawayh, &c., but the Persian form Burzéyah as in Sherdyab, is correcb.

COMERS INTO INDIA. 339

replied.: “The report has a semblance of fact, inasmuch as by the moun- tain is meant a wise man, by the herbs knowledge, and by the dead an ignorant person,” and he proceeded to expound the various lore of the country and theadvantages thereof, In this he included the story of Kalilah and Damnah, and briefly recounted its merits and said, “ the rulers of Hin- dustan keep this manual of state-craft studiously concealed and do not show it to every one.” The desire to obtain this work rendered the monarch impatient. He commanded his ministers saying : “ IT need a judicious and discerning person who to a strong bodily constitution unites firmness of purpose and various learning, besides a knowledge of foreign tongues.”

Burztyah was found to possess these important qualifications and success- fully. proved his capacity. A large sum of money was entrusted to him in order that he might set out in the guise of a merchant to that country, and through inquiries of experts attain the object of his mission, and return with it and other scientific treatises to the court. He came to India, and setting up as a trader passed himself off as an unlearned person desirous of acquiring knowledge. In this way he secured an intimacy with the ministers of the Indian princes, and through their instrumentality returned to the imperial court with that volume of wise lore, together

with other valuable objects. filled his desires.!

1 This story is somewhat differently told by Firdausi. Burzdyah, he narrates, was one of the distingnished circle of learned men at the court of Nushirwin, and one day presented himself before that monarch saying that he had lately read in a Sanskrit work of a mountain in India where grew a hero bright as & Greek sword-blade, which skilfully compounded and sprinkled over a eorpse would restore +t to life, and he asked permission to goin search of it. The king despatched him to India osten- aibly as a merchant, with®many pre- sents, steeds, and a letter addressed to the king of Kananj, and with merchan- dise laden on 800 camels, The Indian prince offered him every facility in his search for the wonderful herb, of which no trace could be found. He was direct- ed at Inst to a hoary sage who informed

The king received him with favour and ful-

him that the mountain was wisdom, the herb an eloquent monitor, and the corpse an ignorant man and that this herb was fitly represented by the work called Kali- lah which was in the king’streasary Re- turning elated to Kananj, Baratyah petitioned the Prince for the gift of the work, which in Arabic was called Kalilah. The poet does not stop to explain how it could have been so called before it was known to the Arabs or translated into Arabio, buat continues, that the prince demurred to so unusual a request, éventaally consenting that the work might be read and inspected only in his presence. Burzdyah complied, reading only as much ata timeas he conld got by heart and transmitting it in his corres- pondence to Nashkirwin, As soon as he learnt, in reply, that the whole work had been received, he took his leave and

340 COMERS INTO INDIA,

MuBamumap Kisiu

Was cousin to the celebrated Hajjaj. He received his commission in the reign of the Caliph Abdu’l Malik, as has been already noticed.!

Axir NdsinGppin Sabugricin

Was the father of Sultan Mahmid of Ghazni. After Bahram Gor none of the (Persian) kings entered India. Sabuktigin invaded it at the head of an army in the year A.H. 367 (A.D. 977), and after several engage- ments returned to Ghaznin.

Axia Sovpin Maumdp Guaznavi Led twelve descents on India. The first wasin A.H. 390? (A.D. 999-1000), and the last in A.H. 418 (A.D. 1027). Fanatical bigots repre- senting India as acountry of unbelievers at war with Islim incited his unsuspecting nature to the wreck of honour and the shedding of blood and the plunder of the virtuous.

Sustran Masato

Was son of Mahmid: He crossed into India in A. H. 426 (A. D.

1084-35).

Suurky Iprsuim, son or Surtsn Masadp.

Although a considerable territory in Hindustan was in the possession of the descendants of Sultan Mahmid, none of the undermentioned princes

returned to Persia. On his arrival he asked the king to command its transla- tion by his minister Buzarj-mihr, and in recompense for bis own toils to permit his name and connection with the work to preface the translation. This favour was granted and the translation was made in the current Pahlavi dialect and was so read until its translation into Arabic in the time of Maman. Under Nagr-b-Ahmad Samani (A. D. 913-43), it was translated into the Dari dia- leot of Persian by order of his minister Aba’! Fazl, and then read out to Radaki who turned it into verse, Sach is the narrative of Firdausi. It ig remarkable that he should incorrectly asoribe the Arabic translation to Mémin instead of al Mangir, in whose reign it was rendered

into Arabic by the Katib Abda’llah-b-u’t Makaffa.

1 See Vol. p., 344.

% Elphinstone gives the date of the first as A. H. 891 (A. D. 1001) and the last as A. H. 415 (A. D. 1024.) The discrepancies may be reconciled by in- cluding or exclnding the initial prepara- tions and the time ascupied in the invasion. In the case of the last in- vasion, Elphinstone supposes it to have occupied dne year and a half; Ferishts two years and a haif 3; Price more thap three years. Abni Fazl may take into account the return of Malbmid to Mol- tin within a year of his twelfth ex- pedition.

8 Elphinstone, A. H. 432 (A. D. 1040)-

COMERS INTO INDIA, 341

entered India :—Makhal-b-Sultan Mahmid; Maudtd-b-Masadd ; Masatd-b- Maudid ; Sultin Ali-b-Masatd-b-Mahmid; Sultén Abdu’r Rashid-b-Mah- mtd; Farrukhzid-b-Masatd; but when in course of time the crown devolved upon [bréhim-b-Masatid-b-Sultéu Mahmud he made peace with the Saljikis and turning his thoughts to India he entered it on several occasions.

Suttsn Masav-b-Jreaniss Also crossed into India at intervals and was successful. Banrdat Sudit-p-Masadp-b-ITprcuin, The Hadtkat (u’l Hakdtk) of the (poet) Hakim Sandéf’ and the Kal¢la

Damna of (Abu’l Maéli) Nagru’llah Mustanfi were dedicated to him. This prince also visited India. ‘

Kuusrav Sadu-3-Banrau Swan.

On the death of his father, he succeeded to the throne. It was about this time that Aliu’ddin Husayn Ghori, known as Jahkdnsoz or Burner of the World, sacked Ghazni and entered Indias. Sultén Ghiyasn’ddin Sam and Sultin Shihdbu’ddin, nephews of Altu’ddin Husayn, on whom the latter had bestowed Ghaznin and the adjacent provinces, contrived to secure the person of Khusrau Shah from India and put him in prison where he ended his dhys, and thus the dynasty of the descendants of Mahmid passed away. Some authorities, however, assert that Khusrau Shab held his court at the Capital of Lahore, and that on his death, he was succeeded by his son Khusrau Malik who was taken by the Ghoris and placed in confinement,® in which he continued till he died.

Natdiju’l Afkar places his death in A. H, 525 (A. D. 1132). Bahrém Shah came to

1 This poot was a native of Ghazni. His Hadtkah is well known and is altogether

of a religious character, a mystical trea- tise on the unity of God and other devotional subjects. The motive of these aids to piety is excellent, but their treat- mont is somewhat monotonous and would be more efficacions in prose. Huasayn Wiiz, in his preface to the Amwdr 4 Suhaylf, mentions the poet Sanif and also Nasru’llah’s version of Kalila and Damna. Vide Eastwick’s translation, pp. 15 and 8. An account of the trang. lations this work has undergone is given by De Sacy in tho “ Momoire His- torique” which prefaces his own edition of it. Eastwick gives A. D. 1180, as about the time when Sandi flourished. Tho

co

the throne in A. D, 1118, and was suc- ceeded by Khnsran Shéh in A. D. 1153. Mustauf signifies President of the Ex- cheqner, and may be either a family de- siguation or derived from occupation of the office.

8 This latter version is correct. Khus- rau Shah died in A. D. 1160, after arcign of seven years. Khusran Malik, his son prolonged his feeble rule for 27 Janar years to A. D. 1186. Ho was takon prisonor by Shihabu’ddia through a stratagem, and sent with his family to Ghirjistin where, some years after, ho was put to death.

342 COMERS INTO INDIA.

Surrks Murzz’uppix Mowasaap Sis.

He is also called Sultan Shihabu’ddin. After the capture of Ghaznia Alau’ddin Husayn Ghori imprisoned Ghiyasu’ddin and Shihdbu’ddin.

On his death, his son Sayfu’ddin came to the throne and by releasing them attached them to his person.

On the death of Sayfu’ddin in his campaign in I’rak! he was succeeded by Ghiydgu’ddin. During his reign Shihabu’ddin led several expeditions into India, and the (defeat and) death of Prithvi Raja and the conquest of Hicdustan occurring about this time, he left his slave Kutbu’ddin (Bibak) at Delhi as his representative. On the death of Ghiyasu’ddin, the throne was occupied by Shihabu’ddin who favoured the Turkish slaves. Among these was T4ju’ddin Elddz,3 upon whom he bestowed the governments of Mekran and Siran which are dependencies of India.

Sourdn Koravu’pvin Arak

Was one of the slaves of Sultan Mu’izzu’ddin,’ and rose to eminence through his own valour and resolution. The Sultan entrusted to him the viceroyalty of Delhi. He ‘made many successful compaigns in India and performed many acts of personal prowess.

Maus Nasirv’ppin Kandcnan’ ‘Was also a slave of Mu’izzu’’ddin. On the death of his master he ‘made himself master of Uchh, Multén and the Sind country, Surrén Snaxsu’ppin Avraisn. Some account him to have been a slave of Shahabu’ddin and others of Kutbu’ddin Aibak.6 After the death of the latter, his son Aram Shah being defeated, the sovereignty devolved upon Altmish.

Surran Guivfsv’ppin Banpan Was one of the slaves of Shamsu’ddin and brought from Turan to India. For atime he held the title of Ulugh Khaén® and subsequently obtained the sovereign power.

1 Against the Turkish tribe of the Euz or Ghuz long settled in Kipchak, and who about this time first came into prominence,

2 In Ferishta the name is Eldoz; in D’erbelot, Wdiz. In Turkish, Idiz or Yildiz signifies a star, and this is doubt- less the trae orthography. D’Herbelot gives the names of the two provinces as Kirmén and Sourén, Ferishta, Kirmin and Sheoran; Keith Johnston writes the lutter both Sarawan und Sahirawén.

D’Herbelot describes jf as marching with Kerman on the cast.

8 Another epithet of Shihabn’ddin Ghori. See Vol. II. 263.

4 See Vol. II. p. 341 u. which quot- ing the U. T. duplicates the b in Kub- bacha, but there is no warrant for thig orthography. The Burhdn é-Kdtj gives it the measure of Sardchah.

5 See Vol. II. p. 303 and ff.

6 See Vol. Il. p, 304, n. 2.

COMERS INTO INDIA. 313

SutrAn Munammap-n-Suran Manik Suku Sarstxi.}

According to some authorities, towards the close of his life havin settled his differences with his brothers, he invaded India and put many to death. A stone idol weighing ten thousand maunds fell into his posses- sion.- The Hindus sent him a message offering to ransom it at its weight in pearls. This offer he refused.

Sunray Janfiu’pprn Manxpuryis®

When Sultan Muhammad Rhwarazm Shah took refuge from the troops of the great Kain, Changiz Khan, in the island of Abaskin,’ he was accom- panied by his son Jaldlu’ddin who, on his father’s death, set out for Khurasin and thence hastened to Ghaznah, and was engaged in several important actions against the Kaan’s forces in which he was victorious, The great Kdan himself marched in person to remedy the disaster. Jalalu’ddin unable to cope with him retired towards Hindustan. The great conqueror pursued him to the banks of the Indus and both armies were again engaged. Yielding at last to superior force he mounted his horse and seizing his royal umbrella in his hand plunged into the stream and crossing its raging waters landed at a point opposite the enemy. He there took off his saddle

1 He was the fifth prince of the eldor branch of the Seljiks of Persia, omit- ting the ephemoral reign of Malik Shah, son of Barkiarok. He succeeded to power in A. D. 1105 and died in A. H. 611 (A.D. 4118). The author of ‘the Tartkh-i-Guztdah, Hamdo’llah-b- Abi Bakr Kazwini, mentions his invasion of India and the capture of the idol. Tis reason for rejecting the offer of the Hin- dus waa that as Azar, the father of Abra. ham, was a maker of idols (but tardsh), it should never be said of him that he was the sellor thereof (but farosh). See the sketch of this conqueror’s career in D’Herbelot. Art. Mabommed fils de Melikschah.

®§ So Hammer enjoins that the word should be written, yet his coins give Mankbarin, See Elliot, II. 549,

8 See p. 86. This is a port on the Caspian which in that neighbourhood received the name of the Sea of Ab: kan. V. Maynard, “ Dict. do la Perse.”

He fled says De Guignes, into Ghilén, passed Astarfbdd and took refage in “ the island of Abaskin,” where he died mia- erably nbandoned by every one. Ags Sayiti narrates that he fell ill of a pleurisy and died alone and abandoned, aud his corpse was shrouded iu his bed- ding, A. H. 617 (A D. 1220). v. Hist. of the Caliphs. Jarrett, p. 495. The nar- rative in the text is borrowed from Mirkhond and may be compared with D’ Herbelot under Art. Gelaleddin, and De Gaigues. Hist. des Huns, Tom. II. 278, and III. 52-58. ‘The latter gives Man; bekberni ns a varian ankberni. Hig retreat into India (A. D. 1221), is men- tioned by Ferishta, who adds that Nizim- v’ddin Ahmad Bakshi and some other historians place the date of his arrival after the death of Nésirn’ddin Kabichah (A. D. 1228, Tab. Nésiri), bat without sufficient warrant,

B44 COMERS INTO INDIA.

and flung his clothes in the sun, and planting the umbrella in the ground gat down under its shade. The Kéan beheld this feat with astonishment and was loud in his admiration. For a night and day he remained there and was joined by fifty of his men, and cutting some clubs, they made a night attack on a party of Indians and carried off a considerable booty,! and in a short time ten thousand horsemen were assembled under his command. Sultén Shamsu’ddin Altmish, Emperor of Hindustan, was under the gravest apprehension, and could not venture to engage him,? Jalalu’ddin continued for nearly two years in India carrying on a desultory warfare, and made himself master of several fertile districts, but subsequently returned by way of Kach and Mekran to the conquest of Trak.

Some authorities assert that when the number of his followers amounted to a thousand, he marched towards Delhi, and sent 2 messenger to Sultin Shamsu’ddin Altmish desiring a post in his service. The latter prudently declined, and after the manner of astute intriguers he poisoned his messen- ger, and sending him a number of valuable presents sped him towards Trin?

Tormatat* Novian

Was one of the principal generals of Changfz Khan. After the inci- dents in connection with Sultan Jalalu’ddin, he invaded India and,touk Multan, Nisgiru’ddin Kabdchah who was governor of that province, opencd the gates of his treasury and won over the soldiery, and by his address and valour remedied the disaster.

Mantk Kady Kuaras® Was one of the military adventurers of Khwarzam and invaded Sind.

1 Bee this story in the Tarikh-i-Jahdén Kushd of Jawaini. Elliot, 11. and tho nar- rabive taken from the Ranzatn’s Saf, Elliot, II, Appendix 538.

% According to D’Ohgson (1II. 4), he proposed peace and the hand of hig danghter which were both accepted by the Sultan. Elliot, LI. Appendix 561 n.

8 Ferishta says he compelled him to retreat towards Sind and Sewistdn, and Mirkhond that he remained an in- dependent power in India for three years and seven months, Elliot, II. 561.

4 This name appears in the Térikh- i-Jaohdn Kush as Tartai (Elliot, II. 391), who was despatched by Changiz Khan in pursuit of Sualtén Jaldlu’ddin, Ue

captured Multén and ravaged the sur- rounding country returning through Sind to Ghazni. I cannot trace the name of Tiartdi or Turmatai in the Raazatu’s Safa, The word Noviaua, (or Novian in oriental historians), in the Mogul langaage sig- nifies chief or geueral, corresponding to the Arab word Emir (De Guignes a. IIT. p. 69), and will be found as an adjunct to many names iu the history of the Moguls (Vol. III. Book XV). The principal generals are mentioned by De Guignes, but none of the name of Turmatai, the orthography of which I do not know as the vowel points are wanting in the text.

§ Commonly Khilji. The origin of the name is given by De Guignes, as

COMERS INTO INDIA. 345

Nasirw’ddin Kabachah advanced to give him battle and displayed great heroism in the encounter in which the Khalaji lost his life. Tsar

Was one of the genorals of Changiz Khan, and in the reign of Mn’iz- zu’ddin Bahram Shéh (A. D. 1239-42) son of Sultan Shamsu’ddin (Altmisk), he. was infatuated with the design of invading Hindustan. Malik Kardkash at that time held the government of Lahore in behalf of the Sultan and from want of spirit and the diswaion among his followers, he set out one night for Delhi, and the town was sacked.!

Manksgyan4 Was one of the generals of Hulégi Khan. He advanced as faras Uchh in the reign of Sultan Aldu’ddin Masatid Shah (A. D. 1242-46), who marched to give him battle. On arriving at the banks of the Bidh, the invader retreated to Khorasan. A year provious to the invasion of Man- ktuyah, a part of the army of Changiz Khan entered Bengal? and hostilities

bestowed on an officer of his sorvice by Ogouz Khan, an ancient Mogalking. This officer having bécn delayed on the line of march throngh ‘the unseasonablo ac- couchemeut of his wife, was anablo to find any provisions for her. The starving mother was without milk, and he went in pursuit of game for her nourishment. ‘Taken before Qgouz Khan he related the causo of his delay, and the king dismissed him with the surname of Kall-Atz, Kall signifying ‘repose’ and Ats hungry. D’ Herbelot writes the words Cal-ag (with a soft g) and the story with different par- ticulars on the authority of Mirkhond. The tribe he names Khalag.

1 This invasidn is noticed by Ferishta without naming the invader, as having taken place on the 16th Jumada. I. A. H. 639 (A. D. 1241), amd according to Briggs, was under “a famous Turki lea- der Toormoosherin Khin.” De Guignes gives the dato of “ Tourmeschirin Khan, of the Zagatai branch of the Western Tartars, as A. H. 728 (A.D. 1327). We succeeded his brother Daoutmour Khan in the rule of Transoxiana and forced

his people to adopt the faith of Islim D’Obsgon places the date of his death in 1330 (Elliot III. 42). The name may mislead, bat the dato fixes the distinc- tion of person. In the beginning of the reign of Alin’ddin, (A.D. 1295-1316), Prince Katlagh Khwajah brother of Tur-, mashirin invaded India. In A. H. 729 (A. D. 1828) Turmashirin himself od- vanced to theconfines of Badéon. Badéoni speaks of a previous inroad by the same leader, but that could have taken place only a few years previously. I find no tuthority for Briggs’s statement, nor the name of Tahir in De Guignes, Ferishta or Elliot,

8 In the Tabakétn’n Niasiri, Mankita with a variant Afankina. A change of tho diacritical points will produce any of the three forms; the person intended is Manga Khan: v. Elliot, II. 344,

8 Thoy arrived al Lekhnaanti in Shaw- wil, A. H. 642 (March 1243), by way of Khaté and Tibet according to Ferishta, the same route taken by Mahd Bakh- tyér Khilji, when he invaded Tibet and Khata from Bengal. .

346 COMERS INTO INDTA.

took place with Tughan Khan, who was at that time governor on the part of Aliu’ddin Masaid Shah, but terms of peace were agreed upon. In the reign of Sultén Nasiru’ddin Mahmid Shah (A. D. 1245-65), the Mughal troops again invaded the Panjab and retired,

Sgri_Novian Invaded Sind with a large army. Sultan Nasiru’ddin (A. D. 1246-66), sent Ulugh Khan! to oppose him and followed in person, and the invader retreated.

a 4 Timdr Novian

In the reign of Hulagu Khan marched towards India with a large force and a hard-fought engagement took place with Kadar Khan, son of Sultén Ghidgu’ddin Balban between Lihor and Dipalpir in which this nursling of fortune drank his last draught.2 He was brave, studious, and a friend to learning, and twice despatched gifts of valuable presents to Muslihu’ddin Shaykh Saadi at Shiraz, with an invitation to his court. Al- though the poet was unable to accept it, he sent him a work written with his own hand, In this action Mir Khusrau was taken prisoner and has himself briefly alluded to this event in his poem. After this no foreign invasion took place for seven years.

Appu’Ltan Kaan

Was the grandson of Hulégu Khan who advanced upon India by way of Kabul, A. H. 691 (A. D. 1292,) Sultan Jalailu’ddin (Firoz Khilji, A. D. 1288-95), marched to stem the disaster and.a stubborn engagement was fought at Bagidam,’ after which the invader retreated on terms of peace. Algi,* a graudson of Changiz Khan, with many other chiefs entered the service of the Sultan, who gave him his daughter in marriage. In the begin- ning of the reign of Sultan Aliu’ddin, some of the Taran troops crossed the

1 Afterwards Ghiy4su’ddin Balban. The history of his family is given in the Tab. Nis. Elliot, Il. 360.

2 See p. 804, and Elphinstone. The phrase is not inappropriate, as Kadar Khin was surprised by the routed enemy ag he halted by a stream to driuk and to return thanks for his victory.

8 Ferishta Herdm ; Briggs, who thinks his MSS. in error, Buirdm ; the Tdérikh Fivoz Shahi Barrém; a river divided the two armies, but there is no mention

of the province in which the engage- ment took place. 4

4 Elliot, Ulghi (IIT. 148). Briggs, | Oghloo, Ferishtn Aghldn or Ughlin, De Guignes gives the orthography Algou. The Térikh Firoz Shahi saye that‘these Mughals embraced Islim and were al- lotted residences in Ghiyaspdar, Kilaghari, Indrapat and Télika, which were called Mughalpir after them.

5 Ferishta saya in the second year of his reign A. H. 697 (A. D. 1297), and that

COMERS INTO INDIA. 347

Indus, and he despatched (Almas Ber) Ulugh Khan and Zafar Khan with a large force to oppose them. The Mughals were defeated, some were taken prisoners, but the greater number were slain.

Sym

Was of the Mughal race and about this time invaded Sind. The Sul- tin (Aldu’ddin) appointed Zafar Khan (to oppose him), who in a short time obtained a victory and taking him prisoner, sent him to the royal court.!

KatLach KuwAdsan®

In the same year crossed the Indus with a large army and advanced by direct marches on Delhi, and as -his design was otherwise he did not open his hand’to plunder. Sultan Aliv’ddin resolved to give him battle and (Zafar Kban) defeated him, pursuing him for sixteen kos. The chiefs through jealousy did not join in the pursuit and the enemy returning sur- rounded him. Though (Zafar Khan) was offered the strongest assurances of advancement, he refused their terms and died fighting to the last.

Tarcni Novian,8 At the time when Sultén Aldu’ddin was investing Chitor, thinking the opportunity favourable, invaded India with a large army. The Sultin

the army was despatched by Dué Khan, king of Transoxiana. Elphinstone and Briggs incorrectly give the name as Didd Khén, Almis Beg was the bro- ther of the king and one of those con- cerned in the murder of Jalalu’ddfn Firéz Knhilji. Ferishta says that all ac- tually concerned in the tragedy perished miserably in the course of four years, yet the abettor who profited most by the crime reigned for 20 years, un- equalicd in wealth and power by any monarch who preceded him. Neverthe- less, that his end was evil is a warning to “those that have eyes.”

! Mentioned in the Térikh Firdéz Shéhf. Elliot IIL. 165. The name of the leader in Ferishta is Chaldi.

8 He was the son of Dud above men- tioned, a8 stated by Wassél (Elliot III, 62), The name of Zafar Khén is omit- ted by Abul Fazl, and the context would imply that the narrative concerns Alé- u’ddin. Ferishta and Ziau’ddin Barni

Nd

both give the details of this action which took place in A. H. 018 (A. D.

), and mention the failure of Ulagh Khan (properly Alp Khén. See Elliot IIT. 208), and other chiefs to support Zafar Khan and the favourable offer of Katlagh which was refused. Zafar Khin’s repntation for valour among the Mu- ghals resembled that of Cooar de Lion in Syria. If their horses shied they would ask if they had seon the ghost of @afar Khin. Aldu’ddin’s jealonsy or fear of his goxeral was sach that he thonght his death the richest reward of the day. The Mughals retreated after the fight and returned to their country.

8 He had previously accompanied Katlagh in hia invasion and it was through his successful ambush, that Zafar Kbéo was surprised and slain. Tho narrative of these events will be found in the reign of the prince, both in Ferishta and Barni.

348 COMERS INTO INDIA.

after the capture of that fortress, A. H. 703 (A. D. 1303), hastened to oppose him and Targhi possessed himself of ‘the fords of the river Jumna, within five kos of Delhi. The Sultén entrenched himself in the vicinity outside the city walls. After some hostilities Targhi returned unsuccess- ful to his own country.

Aup-Beg-axp Tangart Were descendants of Changiz Khan. At the head of thirty thousand horse, skirting the (SewAlik) mountains, he penetrated to Amroha, A. H. 704 (A. D. 1804). Sultan Aldu’ddin sent an army to oppose them. After severe fighting, both of these chiefs were taken prisoners ‘and the rest as an example were trodden to death by elephants.

Kapak® MvuGHan

In the following year (A. H. 705) reacted India with 9 considerable

force, but was taken prisoner. The year after, thirty thousand Mughals made an incursion through the Sewaliks. The Sultan sent a large army which seized the fords and skilfully obstructed them. In the retreat many of the Mughals perished and some were taken prisoners.

IxphtManpd

In thé reign of Aldu’ddin invaded the country at the head of an army

of Mughals, but was killed in action.

were entertained by them.

After this no further hostile designs

Kawasan Rasnip§ Sultén Muhammad Khudabandah sent the author of the Jémi’ut Lawartkh-t Rashidi on an embassy to Sultin Kutbu’ddin, son of Sultan Alau’ddin, and a close friendly alliance was entered into between them,

1 Var. Tirydk. Thia variant and Zick are also in Barni. In Ferishta, Khwdjah Tarbdil or Tirydl; in Briggs? Khwdjah Tdsh, which Elliot says is in accordance with D’Obsson (Hist. des Mongols, IV. 571). IT, 198, n.

3 In Ferishta, eS 5 in Briggs, Fibuk, Elliot has Kank, which is Ferishta’s name, but no diacritioal points determine the pronounciation. Kapak or Kepek is a Yartay name and claimed by one of the princes of Tarkestan, See D’Herbelot ander Al Giapts

8 Fazio Nah Rashida’ddin was born ir A. H. 645 (A. D. 1247), in Hamadan, an¢ as a physician was brcaght into notice at the court of the Mughal Sultins o! Persia. He was raised to the dignity of Wazir by Ghazin Khin Mahmdd o the Jikhanian dynasty and maintnine¢ in office by Oljditid, surnamed Khuda- bandah, brother and successor of Ghazan Khién (A. D. 1303-16). The Jdmi’o’t Towitrikh was finished in A.D. 1310, aud is a general history in 4 Vols. con- tuining the history of the Turkish tribes,

é

SALNTS OF INDIA, 349

Lorp oF tHe Fortunate Convunction. (Trsdr),

When the sovereignty of Delhi devolved upon Sultin Mahmid the grandson of Sultan Firoz, and the office of chief minister upon Malld Khan, all systematic administration and knowledge of affairs ceased to exist and the government fell into discredit. At this period the sublime Standards approached as has already been briefly described. Notwith- standing the conquest of so populous a kingdom, the booty obtained was not important, and the invaders impelled by love of their native land, retired from the country.

Bauer. His history has been fully detailed in the first volume.)

Huntsydn.

When the jewel of sovereignty beamed with the radiance of a coming possession, Humaytin, after some unsuccessful attempts, invaded India. (A. D. 1555), as before narvated. :

Infinite praise to the Almighty that through the justice of the em- peror and the harmonious order of his administration, Hindustan has become a gathering of the virtuous from all parts of the universe, each of whom in manifold ways has attained to tlie desire of his heart.

But this long narrative will never end, for there are many of those freed from the trammels of the world and of others fettered therein, who have visited this country, such as Husayn Mansir, Abi Maashar of Balkh. Khwajah Mu’inu’ddin Sijiai, Khwajah Kutbu’ddin Ushi, Shaykh Traki, Shaykh Saadi, Mir Hasayni, Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadéni and others.4

SAINTS OF INDIA.

(Awttvé-1-Hinp).

Inasmuch as the writer is a suppliant before the servants of God and the love of tlfem is innate in his heart, ho concludes this work with a notice

the life of Oljaitdé, an account of the prophets, kings, Caliphs and Arab tribes concluding with a geographical descrip- tion of the earth. A portion of the 1st Vol. called the Tirikh Ghazéni has been translated by Quatromére. See Eliiot’s Bibl. Indica. to the Uist. of Sthd. India, p. t, and D’Llerbelot ander

Al Giaptu for tho life of the monarch, 45 7

! Tho Akbarnimah, of which the Ain- i-Akbari is the third. The second con- tains the history of the reign of Akbar. Accounts of Hamayian will also be found in the lst Volume.

8 Tho names of almost all of theso personages will be fonud in tho Index of tho Ist and 2nd Volumes.

350 SAINTS OF INDIA.

of such among them as have been either born or have their last resting places in this conniry. He trusts that this course will be pleasing to.many minds and a source to them of eternal bliss. For himself he will inhale fragrance from the garden of truth and receive the meed of his abundant toil. Avliyé is the (Arabic) plural of walt which is interpreted as signify- ing ‘nearness,’ by which is intended spiritual proximity. Some authorities ascribe to wiliyat with a kasra of the waco, the meaning of diversity of appearance, and to waldyat with a fatha, that of authority. Others assert that the idea of a lover attaches to the first, and the state of the beloved’ to the second. The possessor of the former quality is called wali, that of the latter, wdlz. Another opinion is that the word (waldyat) with the fatha, betokens the proximity (to God) of the prophets, and with a kasra (wildyat), of the saints.2 have been given, the outcome of which is that it means one who has attained to the knowledge of the Supreme Being; a lofty soul will indeed love God alone. To me the wonder is, what connection can exist between a dust-mote of creation and the self-existing sun, and what bond lies between the finite and infinity ? A wald,in my opinion, is one who acquires four great virtues and avoids eight reprehensible actions. He should always wage a victorious war by circumspect conduct against the myriad disorders ‘of the spirit, and never for an instant relax bis attention from its deceits, This lofty station is attainable by the grace of God and the , and is sometimes to be renched through the spiritual wc sometimes without it, The latter state they call mple of Uways Karani ;* and some say

In ancient works many signvifications

guidance of fortun powers of a mediator, Uwayst with reference to the ex

% ’ *

• • • oo *

. Compare with this, Jami’s introduo- tion to his Nufakdtw’l Uns min Hadharatv l Kuds (Halitus familiaritatis e viris sanc- titute eminentibus prodeuntes), p. 3, Lees’ edit. where the derivation and meaning of wa/f are discussed and illus- trated ‘Do you desire to bea Walt?” said the celebrated devotee Ibréhim Adham, to acertuin man, “ then seek not the things of this world or the next, but resign thyself wholly to God and tarn to Him.” That is, that the selfish desire for the delights of paradise is an obsirue- tion to perfect communion with God in a similar sense with worldly pleasures thongh, of course, differing in degree.

% This personage is reforred t0 itftha 87th BMakdmah of al Hariri; “and the crowd thronged roand Abu Zayd prais- ing him and kiasing his hand and seck- ing a blessing by the toach of his tattered garment, till 2 thought that he must be Uways al Karani or Dubays al Asadi.” He waa the son of Admir and one of the Taébii’n (or those next in time to the companions of Muhammad) cele- brated among the devotees of Kifah and was killed fighting at the battle of Siffin ander Ali, in A. H. 87. Karani is the name of one of the halting places of the people of Nejd on their pilgrimage to Mecca. See Arabic note to De Sacy’s

6

SAINTS OF INDIA. 351

The former, who possess the power of revealing things not manifest to the senses, are classed under twelve orders, of which two aro regarded as unorthodox :—

(1). Muhdsibi. (2). Kassdr. (3). Tayfari. Nuri. (6). Sabli. (7). Hakimi. (8). Kharrazf. Sayyari. (11). Huldli. (12). Hallaji.

I. The source of grace to the First-NAMED was Abd Abdu’llah Harith! b-Asad Muhasibi, a native of Basrah, He mastered all secular and specu- lative science and was thoroughly acquainted with the inequalities of the spiritual road, He was the teacher xar’ éfoxyv of his time and the author of many works. He died at Baghdad in, A. H. 243 (A. D. 857). As he ‘ ever judiciously wielded the moral controlling authority of his age, he received this name of Muhasib.

The sseconp follow Hamdin, the son of Ahmad-b-Amméar, Kassér or ’ the Fuller, his patronymic being Abi Salih. He studied under Thauri® and acquired many spiritual benefits from Salm-b-Husayn Barisi, Abi Turéb Nakshabi and Ali Nasribédi, and was a disciple of Ab& Hafs. He _ attained a high degree of perfection though the world gave loose to the tongue of slander against him. He died at Nishapur in A. H. 271 (A.D. 884).

(4). Junaydi, (5). (9). Khafifi, (10).

Hariri, p. 506, for the prophetic annonnce- ments of his birth and sanctity, the visit of Omar and Ali to him, and their discovery of the “ white wonder” of his hand in the Mosaic sense. Jami quotes Faridu’ddin Attér to the effect that cer-

tain exalted mystics of the spiritun! “”*- ~ are called Uwnvas ofts1 une above-named

saint, through their being directly in- spired by the prophet without any visible director, a rank and office to which very few can aspire and given only to the chosen of God. , Nafahdétu’luns, p. 21.

1 He is said by Jami never to have used any support for his back, night or day, for 40 years, but always to have sat resting his knees on the ground declar- ing it to be the proper attitude fora servant in front of his Lord the King, meaning the Almighty.

8 Sufyén Thauri ia noticed in Jami, p.716; and in the same volume will be found the names of all the saints and doctors mentioned in the following pages.

Intornal evidence conclusively proves that Abul Faz] utilized Jémi’s work in this,

compilation, one nx the account of tho almost verbatir

vu name in the second list, and foury .

_‘Menal without acknowledgment. I do not think it necessary to disturb the dust of these uninviting biographies whioh are often as brief and coloarless as those in the text, a bald record of names and dates with laudatory epithets of eradition or sanctity, and concluding occasionally with s few devotional maxims, Many of these are excellent precepts of condact and are proofs of a trae interior spirit of piety, but this is not the place to record them. For the reat, the English reader oan be noither edified. nor instructed by a hagiography of fossil names, most of them ag pro- foundly forgotton ag if they had never survived. The few that requira any special mention shal) recoive it. }

s

352 SAINTS OF INDIA. |

The truRD revere Tayfir-b-I’sa Bistami whose patronymic is Bayazid. One of his great ancestors was a Magian called Sharoshau. His earliest education was received from the elders of Bistim under whom he studied science and reached the rank of a mujtahid.! Next, having mastered the ordinary subjects of knowledge, he attained to the highest grade of in- tellectual distinction. He ranked equal to Ahmad Khazrawaih, Abi Hafs, and Yahya-b-Madz, and was contemporary with Shakik of Balkh, He died in A. H. 261 (A. D. 874-75), or according to another account, A. H. 234 (A. D. 848).

The rourrH are adherents of Junayd Baghdadi whose patronymic is Abn’l Kasim and who is styled Kawériri, the flask maker, and Zajjaj, the glass manufacturer, and Khazzdz, the raw-silk merchant. His father sold glass nnd he himself traded in silk. His ancestors were from Nahawand, but he was born and bred in Baghdad. He studied, for a time, under Sariy Sakatiy, Harith al Muhdsibi and Muhammad Kassab, and his connec- tion is authoritatively tiaced with Kharréz,? Ruyam, Nari, Shibli and many others among the chosen servants of God. Shaykh Abi Jaafar-b-Haddad says that if wisdom could be incarnate, it would assume the form of Junayd. He died in A. H. 297-98 or 99 (A. D. 909-10-11).

The rirraH are called after Abishkhwur Nivi Serabdil. His name was Ahmad-b-Muhammad or according to some, Muhammad-b-Muhammad. He was commonly known as Ibn-i-Baghawi8 His father was from Khara- birth and origin aro of Baghdad, and he is among those

mom and virtue. He was in friendly intercourse ad Kagsib, and Ahmad Abi’] Hawéari, and

san, but his ow distinguished for

contemporary with Za’n Nin’ o

8 Relative adjective of DRY \anur, “a7 town between Ioerat and Marv. called

4 This term denotes a doctor who

exerts all his capacity for the purpose

of forming a right opinion upon a legal question, and the title assumes that be was successfal, an assumption commonly made by his friends and denied by his enemies, as in the case of Suydti. Seo my Introduction to the translation of his ‘ History of the Caliphs,’ p. xiv.

8 Or the Cobbler. ‘There are two of this epithet in Jami, viz., Abd’ullah of Rayy, who died in A. H. 320, and Ahmad-b-fsa, who died in A. H. 286 (A. D. 899): the latter is here meant. it is remarkable that many of these ascetics were of the humblest origin and petty tradesmen hy profession.

also Bagh according to Yakut.

41 am not sure of the orthography. Sakatiy signifies a dealer in small wares, apedlar, According tos Beale who pro- nounces the word “ Sakti,” he was also so called becanse jie formerly dexult in me- tals. The etymological connection ia not evident. Jami is silent on the epithet. T have also heard it pronounced Sukti, but so many of these holy men were of the lowest class and were known by their trades, that I think Sakatiy is most probably correct.

6 Abu’l Fayz Thabaa-b-Ibréhim. The

reputation fur sanctity and miracles 6

SAINTS OF INDIA. 353

rity with Junayd, but somewhat- more impulsive. He dicd in A. H. 295 (A. D. 907-8) or 286 (A. D. 899).

The sixru originate from Sahl-b-Abdu’llah Tustari, who was a disciple of Zu’n Nin of Egypt, and ouc of the most eminent of those who attained, to this sublime vocation. He was among the associates of Junayd and died in the month of Muharram, A. H, 283 (A. D. 896), at the age of eighty-six. ; ;

The sevenrn revert to Abé,,Abdu’llah Muhammad-b-Ali Hakim-i- Tirmidi. He was in intercourse with Abi Turdb Nakshabi, Ahmad Khazrawaih and Ibn-i-Jala, and was pre-eminent in all secular and specula- tive knowledge. He is reported to be a voluminous author and to have had the gift of miracles. oy

The ercury look to Abdi Said Kharraéz, or the Cobbler. His name was Ahmad-b-Ysa and he was a native of Baghdad. Through his inclination towards the Safis he went to Egypt and resided in devout attendance by the temple of Mecca. His profession was that of a shoemaker and he was the disciple of Muhammad-b-Maustr Tisi. He associated with Zu’n Nin of Egypt, Sariy Sakatiy, Abi Ubayd Bagri, and Biskr Al Haji, and derived much spiritual instruction from them. He is the author of four hundred works, Those uninstructed in his doctrine believed him to be an infidel. He died in A. H. 286 (A. D. 899), Khwajah Abdu’lah Angiri sayg that he knew none of the great doctors more profoundly versed in the mysteries of the Divine Unity.

The wintu invoke Aba Abdu’llah Muhammad-b-Khafif. His father was from Shiraz and he himself was the disciple of Shaykh Abi Talib. He was master of secular and spiritual science and had seen Khazraj al Baghdadi and Ruyam, and was a contemporary of (Aba Bakr) Kattani, Yusuf-b-Husayn Rizi, Aba Husayn Maliki, Abi Husayn al Muzayyan,!

of this mystic oxtends throughout the (Oricut. Biog. Dict.) states that the Latdifwl Akhbdr contains his Momoirs.

Unless this rofers to the work (Latdif tu

Moslem workl and his name constantly occurs in its liternture. He died in

A. TL. 245 (A.D. 860), and a flock of birds of a kind never bofore observed, fluttered over his bier whon carried to the grave. On the day following his burial was found written on his tomb- stone in characters dissimilar to those used among mon: ‘ Za’n Nin, the friend of God, and slain by this love of God.” Ags often as this was crased, it was found ever freshly ongravad. Jami records sun of hig devotivnal maxims. Beale

Akhbdrvl Uwal) by Mhd Abdo’) Muti onthe dynasties of Egypt, lam iguo- rant of its author. °

L There were two of this epithet called al Kabir and ag Sughtr, Major and Minor : they were cousins and both natives of Baghdad ; the former was buried in his own town in A. A. 327, tho latter in Mecoa. This information which is noarly all that Jami gives is scaveely deserving of a uvte.

354 SAINTS OF INDIA.

‘Aba Husayn Darréj and many others of note. He wrote many works and died in the year A. H. 331 (A. D. 942-43).

The renTH trace back to Abu’! Abbas Sayydri. His name was Kasim and he was the son of the daughter of Ahmad-b-Sayyar. He was a native of Marv and the disciple of Abi Bakr Wasiti. He pursued the ordinary curriculum of worldly studies as well as speculative science, and attained to an eminence in the practice of the spiritual life. He died in the year A. H. 342 (A. D. 953).

The ELeventH. The founder of this order was Halman! of Daiiaseee:

The twen.rra. This order had its origin in a Persian who was one of the disciples of Husayn-b-Mansir Halldj of Baghdad, not the cele- brated Husayn-b-Mangtr (of Bayza).*

These last two have been the subject of much reviling.

In Hindustan fourteen orders are recounted which are styled the fourteen families and of these twelve only are described, omitting mention of those of -Tayfir and Junayd :—

(1). Habibi. (2). _Tayfirl. (3). Karkhi. (4). Sakatiy. (5). Junaydi. (6). Kazrdni. (7).;Tusie (8). Firdausi. (9). Suhrawardi, 10. Zaydi. (11). T’yazi. (12). Adhami. (13). Hubayri. (14). Chishti.

They assert that Ali, the Prince of the Faithful, had four vicegerents, viz., Yasan, Husayn, Kamil, and Hasan Basri. The source of these orders they believe to be Hasan Basri who had two representatives, Habtb-i- Ajami, from whom the first nine obtain their spiritual fervour, and the other Abdu’l Wahid-b-Zayd, from whom the last five are filled with conso- lation. The mother of Hasan Basri was one of the slave girls of Umma Salimah,? and he received his name from Omar-b-Khattib. He early became

t Var. Aba Halman. Abo Halimén. Aba Hukman.

on his death and had him scourged with a thonsand stripes on the judg-

3 See p. 74. The history of this latter personage ig well known. He was cra- cified alive for three days from early morning till midday by order of the Caliph Al Muktadir in A. H. 309 (A. D. 922), He was accused of blas- phemy for his words “ Ana’l Hukk,” “JY am the Truth,” by which he wag supposed to claim divinity. Ibn-al- Athir denies this pretension on his part and maintains that he was a devout worshipper of God. On examination he was found to hold no heterodox opinion, bat the Wazir Hamid was .determined

ment of Omar, the Kadhi, that the shed- ding of his blood was lawful. His hands and feet were cut off, his body burni, and his ashes thrown into the Tigris.

8 Hind, the daughter of Abi Umayyah, and the latest survivor of the wives of Muhammed. She died in A. H. 59 (A. D. 678). An Nawawi in hig Tahatbu’l Asmd (correctio nominum) says, that the mother of Hasan of Basrah was the favourite slave or freed woman of Ummu-Saiimah, and Hasan wag born to her two years before the close of the C. hate of Omar (A. H. 21)

SAINTS OF INDIA. 855

an orphan. From the dawn of intelligence his mind was illumined and through this brilliant destiny he chose the path of solitude and emaciated himself by austcritics while he became filled with the good things of the spirit. He preached a discourse every week and gathered an assembly around him. When Rabi’ah! was not present, he would not proceed. The people said to him, ‘“‘ Why dost thou desist because some old woman does not come.” He answered, ‘‘ The food prepared for elephants is of no profit to ants.” im

The First order trace their connection with Habib-i-Ajami. He was a man of substance and hypocritical in his life. His eyes were opened somewhat by Suhrawardi® and he was directed to the true faith by Hasan Basri. Many disciples were.instructed By him in the way of salvation. Oncdé when he was escaping from the purauivants of Hajjaj, he arrived at the cell of Habib. The officers asked him where Hasan was. He replied within the cell, They searched, but could not find him and reprimanded Habib and said, ‘“‘Whatever Hajjaj may do to you, will be deserved.” He answered, “I have spoken only the truth. If you. have not seen him what fault is it of mine?” They again entered and made a strict search and returned in anger and departed reviling him ; Hasan thereupon came forth and said, “O Habib, thou hast, indeed, truly done thy duty by thy master.” He answered, “O master, thou hast been saved by the telling of the truth. Had I spoken falsely we should both have been killed.” One night a needle fell from his hand in a dark room. A miracalous light shone. He- covered his eyes with his hands and said, “ Nay, nay, I wish not to search for a needle save by the light of a lamp.’

The THIRD order derive from Marif Karkhi. They say that his father was a Christian and changed his faith under Imém Riza and was honoured

When the mother was occasionally ob- liged to leave her infant, Ummu Salimah would nurse it from her own bosom, and it was throngh the blessing of this privilege that he afterwards attained to his eminence of wisdom and sanctity. He diedin A. H. 110 (A. D. 728). Tis mother’s name is not given by An Nawawi.

l A pious lady of this name, a native of Basra is: mentioned by Beale; her doath is placed by him in (A.D. 801), and she is said to have been a contemporary of Sariy Sakatiy who died in A. D. 867. He must have been & «re youth

Ee)

when she was living. She cannot be the person here alluded to. Another Rabiah Adawiyah, also of Basrah, a con- temporary of Sufy4n Thaurf, is given by Jami, but without date.

8 See p. 83. YA&kdt mentions two among many religious doctors from the town. Jdmi notices the life of one of them and besides these of three others of the name, of which one may possibly be the porson alluded to, but no date of his period is given. .

8 That is probably, that he felt him. self unworthy of supernatural aid,

356 SAINTS OF INDIA.

with the office of his door-keeper. He associated with Didd Tai and prac- tised mortification and through his rectitude of intention and perfected acts he rose to be a spiritual guide. Sariy Sakatiy and many others profited by his instruction. He died in A. H. 200 (A.D. 815). It was about this time that Magians, Christians, and Jews thronged to him and each wished to practise his own faith under his dircction, but it could not be earried out. Nevertheless he held a place in the pleasant retreat of universal tolerance.

The rocrts follow Sariy Sakatiy whose patronymic is Abn’l Hasan. He is one of the great masters of the practical religious life and was the director of Junayd and many other servants of God. He was one of the Zssociates of Harith Muhdsibi and Bishr al Hifi, and was the disciple of Maraf Karkhi. Adequate praise of him is beyond the capacity of my ignorance. In the year A. H. 253 (A D. 867), he gathered up his garment from this dust-heap of a world.

The sixth acknowledge Abi Ishik-b-Shahrydr as their head. His father abandoned the doctrines of Zoroaster and embraced the creed of Islim. He was instructed by Shaykh Aba Ali Firozdbidi and was the contemporary of many doctors of the faith, and had mastered all secular and speculative science. He was released from the turmoils of earth in A. H. 426 (A. D. 1034-35).

The sEventa was founded by Aléu’ddin Tasi, who was united in the bonds of a spiritual paternity with Shaykh Najmu’ddin Kubra,

The eicutH invoke Shaykh Najmu’ddin Kubra. His patronymic was Abi Jandb, his name Ahmad Khfwaki, and his title Kubra, or the Greater.! He was spiritually directed by Shaykh Ismail Kasri, Ammar Yasir and Rozbihan, and he had great repute for his insight into matters of the exterior and inner life. Shaykh Majdu’ddin Baghdddi, Shaykh Saadu’ddin Hammawiyah, Shaykh Raziu’ddin Ali Lalé, Bébé Kamal Jandi, Shaykh Sayfu’ddin Bakharzi and many other religious obtained’ their eternal salvation through his efficacious prayers. He died by the sword in A. H. 618 (A. D. 1223).

The wnintH is favoured through Shaykh Zi4u’ddin Abu’n Najib Abduw’l Kahir Suhrawardi. He was versed in the knowledge of the world aud the spirit, and traced his descent from Abt Bakr ag Siddfk? by twelve

1 Because in all coutroversies, says Khwérzam Shah. Jani gives a lengthened

Jami, in which he was engaged in hia youth, he was over triumphant, and go re- ceived the appollation. Ile was killed by the Tartars on their invasion of Khwar- -zam after the flight of Muhawmad

biography of this gaint and records sume of his miracles, which aro oxtraordinary enough, if thoy occurred. .

% This and the following sentence are almost yorbutim from Jami,

SAINTS OF INDIA. 357

intermediary links. His doctrinal precepts he derived in direct transmis- sion from Shaykh Ahmad Ghazzali; and he was the author of many works, among them the Addébu’l Muridin (Institutiones Discipulorum). He passed to his heavenly abode in A. H. 563 (A. D. 1167-68).

The TENTH follow Shaykh Abdu’! Wahid-b-Zayd.

The eLeventa acknowledge Fuzayl-b-I’yéz. His patronymic is Abi. Ali and he was a native of Kufah, but according to others of Bokharaé, and other places are alsonamed. He passed his days as a wandering dervish between Marv and Baward (Abiward), and from his natural goodness Gf disposition, received interior illumination and his virtuous conduct assured his salvation. He passed from the world in A. H. 187 (A. D. 802-3).

The rwetrra take Ibrahim Adham of Balkh as their guide. His patronymic was Abdi Ishak. His ancestors were of princely race and the

’ star of his happy destiny shone forth from his early youth, for he withdrew himself altogether from the world. He nssociated with Abi Sufydén Thauri, Fuzayl-b-V’yéz, Abi Yusuf Ghasili and was in intimacy with Ali-b-Bakkar, Huzayfah Marasbi and Silm al-Khawwas. He died in Syria in the year A. H. 161 or 162 (A. D. 7777-78-79).

The THIRTEENTH trace back to Hubayrah of Basrah.

The FOURTEENTH are connected with Abi Ishak Shami who was the disciple of Shaykh U’liw Dinawari. When the Shaykh arrived at the village of Chisht, Khwajah Aba Ahmad Abdal, who was the foremost among the Shaykhs of Chisht received instruction from him,! and after him his son Muhammad illumined the lamp of sanctity. Following him, his nephew Khwéjah Samaani carried on the doctrine, whose son Khwajah Maudiid Chishti succeeded to the headship. His son Khwajah Ahmad also reached the same eminence. ‘

There is, however, no exclusive claim in regard to either of these two lists. Any chosen soul who, in the mortification: of the deceitful spirit and in the worship of God, introduced some new motive of conduct, aud whose spiritual sons in succession continued to keep alight the lamp of doctrine, was acknowledged as the founder of a new line, for besides these twelve and fourteen orders, many another catena of religious schools has a worldwide repute, such as the

Kxotrt which follows Shaykh Muhyi’ddin Abdu’l Kadir Jili. He was a Sayyid

descended from Husayn. Jil is the name of a village near Baghdad.

! This sontence is almost word for notice of this porsonage in Jémi. word identical with a passage from the 46

P)

358° SAINTS OF INDtA.

Some authorities state that he was from Jilan.! He was supreme in his time for his secular and spiritual knowledge. He received his dervish’s habit from the hands of Abt Said al-Mubarak (b. Ali al-Makhzimf), and is thus spiritually connected with ash-Shibli through four interme- diaries. His sanctity and extraordinary ‘miracles are world-famed. He was born into the world in A. H. 471 (A. D. 1078), and bid farewell to it in A. H. 561 (A.D. 1165).

Yasawi,

These are disciples of Khwa4jah Ahmad Yasawi. In his youth he was under the supervision of Bab Arslin, who was an eminent spiritual guide among the Turks. On his death he profited by the instruction of Khwajah Yusuf Hamadini. The Turks call him Até Yasawi; Ata in Turkish signify- ing a father, and their saints are thus designated? He returned to Turkistén at the command of the Khwajah and ended his days in the’ spiritual instruction of the people. Many miracles are reported of him. Four spiritual delegates are celebrated as religious guides: Mansir Até, Said Até, Sulayman Aid, and Hakim Ata. Yasi is a town in Turkistdn, the birthplace and town of this Shaykh.

Naxsupanpi.

This school owe their eternal salvation to KhwAjah Rahé v’ddin Nakshband. His name was Muhammad-b-Muhammad al-Bokhbari. He was a disciple of Khwijah Muhammad Biba Sammasi and received his religions instruction in regard to exterior conduct from (Sayyid) Amir Kulal, his delegate. Khwajah Sammitsi used often to say to Khwajah Ali Ramithani,2 [universally known as (Hazrat) Azizan], as they passed in the

% According to Jémi the term in his biography of Bab Farghini. Bab (father) is applied to religious elders in the Far- ghana country. The appellation in this sense seems universal.

1 Among them Jimi from whom this notice is taken. His spiritual connec- tion with ash-Shiblisignifies the investi. ture with the dervish’s habit which ash-Shibli performed upon Abua’l Faz] at Tamimi, who invested Abo’l Farah Tarstisi, who clothed Abul Hasan at Kearagshi, who in his tarn conferred it on

8 Yakat’s anthority decides the pro- nuveiation of this name. Rdmfthan

al-Makhzimi. In his infancy he refased his mother’s milk at the appearance of the new moon, on the fast of the Ramazadu: acow that he was tending in his youth addressed him in Arabic and iuspired him with his vocation : he fasted for 40 days. These are some of the miracles reported by Jami.

(wel) he states, is a village in Bokhéré. Jimi and Abal Paz] after

him write the word wiwl. This ac- count has been taken from Jimi’s notices of Khw4jah Muhammad Bibi Sammési and Bahan’ddin Nakshbandi to which T refer the reader for those of the other doctors herein named. Minduda accord-

SAINTS OF INDIA. 359

vicinity of Kasri Hindudn, “ From this soil there comes the fragrance of w man that will soon make the Kasr i Hinduan (Castle of Hinduan), becalled the Kasri Aarifan (Castle of the Pious) ;” till one day coming from the house of (Sayyid) Amir Kulal and passing the castle, he exclaimed, “ The fragrance has increased—that man verily has been born.” On inquiry it was found that three days had elapsed since the birth of the Khwajeh. His father carried him to the Baba, who said that he would adopt him as his spiritual son, and turning to his friends said: “ This is the one whose fragrance I smelt, and who will be the spiritual guide of the world.” To Amir Kulal he said; “ Withhvld no care or kindness in the bringing up of our son Bahéu’ddin.” His orders were carried out. After a time when his fame grew, Bibi Sammasi said to him: “ Your zeal hasa loftier flight. You have my permission to-go and beg of other souls.” There- upon he went to Kutham Shaykh} and attended his instruction, and profited by the guidance of Khalil Ata and realised his parpose through the spiritual aid of Khwajah Abd u’l Khalik Ghujduwéni? The source of his interior illumination was (the prophet) Khizr; his faith and discipline were derived from Khwajah Yusuf Hamadéni. Khwajah Yasuf had four vicegerents, Khwajah Abdu’llah Barki, Khwajah Hasan Andaki,3 Khwajab Ahmad Yasawi, and Khwadjah Abda’l Khalik Ghujduwani. Khwajah Yusuf had received instruction from Shaykh Aba Ali Farmidi, and he from Shaykh Abu ’] Kasim Gurgén{f. The latter was the @isciple of the following two personages, Junayd and Shaykh Abu’l Hasan Khara- kani, and these of Bayazid Bistimi, and Biyazid of the Imim Jaafar ag- Sadik. The Imam was himself nourished from two sources; on the one

ing to Yakét, is a stream between Khizistan and Arrdéjin, flowing through a district bearing that name. The prefix ‘kagr, or castle, is given to many places in Yakit’s work, but omitted in this in- stance. Amir Kalél was the Khaltfak or vicar, of Babé Sammasf.

1 He was one of the Tarkigh Shaykhs aud his reception of Bahan’ddin is noticed by Jimf.

3 Ghujdawién is a small town in Bokhéra, YAkit.

8 Andak is ten parasaugs from Bokh- &ré, Farmid is one of the towns of Tds. Kharakén is one of the Bistim villages on the road to Astaradbéd where,

in Yikit’s time, was still to be seen the tomb of Abu’l Hasan who died on the 10th of Muharram, A. H. 425 (A. D. 1033), at the age of 73.

4 The Imém Abi Abdn’Nah Jaafar ag- Sadik (the Veracions), fourth in descent from Ali-b-Abi Talib, born A. H. 80 (A. D. 699) ; died and buried at Medina A, H. 148 (A. D. 765). The same tomb contains the bodics of his fathor Muhd. al-Bakir, his grand father Alf Zayna’l Adbidin and his grand-father’s uncle al-Hasan, son of Alf. “ How rich & tomb,” says Ibn Khallikdn, “in gonero- sity and nobility.”

360 SAINTS OF INDIA.

side from his father Muhammad Bikir, and he, from his father Imam Zayn-

‘u’ 1 Adbidin, and he from his grand-parent the Imam Husayn, and on the other from his mother’s father Kasim-b-Muhammad-b-Abii Bakr, and Kasim from Salman al-Farsi (the companion) and Salman! from Abd Bakr.

It is said that Khwajah Bahéu’ddin had neither a slave nor a hand- maid, and when asked the reason of this, he replied that (“ the maintenance of) bondage was incompatible with the profession of a religious teacher.” They inquired of him: “To what stage does your spiritual ancestry go back?” He replied, ‘No one reaches any stage by virtue of a spiritual ancestry.” On the night of Monday, 3rd Rabii’ I, A. H. 791, (4th March, A. D, 1389) he disburdened himself of his elemental body.

The case of these orders is similar to that of the four schools of theo- logy. Any one reaching the rank of Mujtahid may become a doctrinal authority, and there is no difficulty in the recognition of this as fourfold.

But it is better that I should desist from further detuils and seek the divine mercy by mentioning the Saints of God. In the following enu- meration, under the title of “ Saints,” I have recorded the names of forty- eight only among thousands, and make this a means towards the attain- ment of eternal bliss.

SHayxa BaAsk Ratn

Was the son of Nasr at-Tabrindi ;* his patronymic was Abu’l Rizé, In the time of Ignorance he was born at Tabrindah and went to Hijaiz

1 He was a freedman of Mahammad ; bis name Abt Abdu’llah Salman al-Khayr,

him by the Inst of the monks. He is said to have been one of the most learned,

or the Good, a native of Tayy, one of the villages of Ispahan; others say from Raima Hurmuz. His father was head- man of the village and a Magian. The youth fled from his home and fell in with some monks, in whose company he remained till their death. The last of them directed him to go to Hijaiz and foretold the coming of a prophet. Ha travelled thither with some Arabs who sold him to a Jow of Kuraydha at Wadi’l Kura, who took him to Medina. There he met Muhammad and recognized his prophetic mission, from his signet ring, and from an alma twice offered to him which were the three signs announced to

pious and liberal of the companions, and to have advised Muhammad to dig the ditch or entrenchment round Medina when attacked by Jews of Al-Nadhir and Kuraydha. He died at Madain in A. H. 3!, and according to others in 35 (A. D. 655), An-Nawawi remarks that the learned aro unanimous that he lived to the age of 250 years and some say three hundred and fifty. This un- animity is, indeed, wonderful.

8 This is perhaps Tabarhindah (sce yol. I. p. 316). Baddoni makes this place the head-quarters of Raja Jaypal, the antagonist of Mabmid of Ghazni. Fe- rishta states that the territories of Jay-

SAINTS OF INDIA. 361

and saw the Prophet, and after many wanderings returned to India. Many accepted the accounts he related, while others rejected them as the garru- — lity of senile age. He died at Tabarindah, in A. H. 700 (A. D. 1300-1), and was there buried. Shaykh Ibni Hajr Askalani, Majdu’ddin Firozdbadi, Shaykh Al& uv’ ddaulah as Simnani, Khwajah Muhammad Parsé and many pious individuals acknowledged and commended him.

Kawdsan Muinv’ppin Hasan Onrsuti

Was the son of Ghiyasu’ddin Hasan and a Sayyid in descent from both Hasan and Husayn, and was born in A, H. 537 (A. D. 1142), in the village of Sijz, of the province of Sijistan.

At the age of fifteen he lost his father. Ibrahim Kahandazi,!a man absorbed in divine things, regatded him with an eye of favour and set aflame the gathered harvest of worldliness with the fire of divine ardoar, and guided him in his quest. In Harin, a village of Nish4ptir, he at- tended Khwajah Othman Chishti, and practised a mortified life and re- ceived the habit of Khalifah or vicegerent. Subsequently he reached a higher degree of perfection and was spiritually benefited by Shaykh

pal extended from Sarhind to Lamghan. The position of Tubarhindah I cannot dotermine. In the acconnt of Baba

Ratn given in the Igdbah fi tamyfz ig-°

Sthdbah (Recta institatio de distinc- tione inter socios prophetw), he is said to have lived in a village near Delhi (p. 1098). Ibn Haje Askalani, the author of this work, does not quite Dear ont the statement of Abu’l Fazl. Baba Ratn pretends that he lived to the age of 700 years by virtue of a blessing of Muhammad, whom as a strip- ling he saw tending camels and carried in his arms over a stream between Jaddah and Mecca, which the lad could not cross. The youth then three times prayed for his long life. Baba Ratn again visited Mecca and there found in the Prophet, the youth of his first visit, and again three times the blessing of old age was invoked upon him. Various accounts place his death in A. H. 696, 612 and 632. Nothing appears to have been known of him till the ond of the

sixth or beginning of the seventh cen- tary of the Flight, and Askalani says that if his statement were trne, the earlier centuries would have heard something of him. Ad-Duhabi has no words too strong to condemn him as a flagrint im- poster whose lies inspired by the father of them, were credited by fools. The specimens given in Askalanii’s account folly bear out this condemnation, buat as fictions they are amusing.

1 This is the orthography of Yékit, bat he says the rdwis, or relators of tra- dition commonly pronotnce it Kuhundas, the Arabicised form of je wrt or “the old Fort.” This is no doubt the correct form. There are many of this name, 6. g., in Bokhare, Samarkand, Herat, Balkh, Marv, Nishdpdr and other places, and it is ap- plied, he says, to the citadels of the largo towns and not to isolated forts. He gives the names of several persons with this cognomon, but no Ibréhim. Seo Forislita’s account of this saint.

362 SAINTS OF INDIA.

Abdu’l Kadir Jili and other holy men. In the year that Mu’izzu’ddiu Sam took Delhi (A. H. 589, A. D. 1193), he arrived at that city, and with a view of a life of seclusion withdrew to Ajmer and there inspired the same zeal among numerous disciples by his own efficacious will. He shared the reward of a heavenly kingdom on Saturday, the 6th of Rajab, A. H. 633 (18th March 1236). His resting place is at the foot of the hilly range of that district and is visited to this day by high and . low.

Saarka Ari Guaznavi Hasdparf.

His patronymic was Aby’l Hasan. His father was Othman-b-Abi Ali Jullabi. He lived secluded from ordinary worldly concerns and obtained a high degree of knowledge. An account of him is given in the Kashfu’l Mahjuib i Arbabvl Kulib (delectio eorum qui relata sunt in favorem cordatorum).! In this work he says, “I followed in this path Shaykh

• Abu’l Fazl-b-Hasan al Khatli.” His resting place is in Lahor.

Sarre Husarn Zanskni? AYRE ULUSAIN GAN

A man of extensive erudition. Khwajah Mu’in’uddin attended his instructions ‘at Lahdér where his tomb is, and which is visited by many to the gain of their eternal welfare.

Snayxa Baniv’ppin Zaxaniys®

‘Was the son of Wajihu’ddin Muhammad-b-Kamalau’ddin Ali Shéh Kurayshi, and was born at Kot Karor, near Multan, in A. H. 565 (A. D.

1 A work on Sdfiism by Shaykh Abu’l Hasan Ali b, Othmanal Ghaznavi. Khatli is the relative adjective of Khatlan, e province in Transoxiana near Samar- kand. YékGt says that some pronounce it Khutlén which is wrong, Khuttal being a village on the road to Khurasin going from Baghdad in the vicinity of Das- kirah.

% Zanjfu isa large town in the Jabal district between it and Azarbijin, near Abhar and Kazwin. Yakat.” |

8 The text duplicates the K which is not admissible, and is corrected in the Errata. He is briefly noticed by Jémi. Ferishta who has a long mono- graph on him, says that he left seven mil-

lion tankahs to his son Sadru’ddin, besides other furniture and goods which the latter gave away on the very first day of pos- session. Being asked why he so disposed of wealth amagsed by his father and given in due measare to the poor, he replied that his father had sufficiently conqnered himself to have no fear of an improper nso of it, wherens he himself, not so advanced in sanctity, dreaded the temp- tation. Taking the silver tankah at 4d., according to the computation of Nizému’ddin Bakshi, (Briggs, I. 432), thia sum would be eqnal to £116, 666 pounds sterling. The word fankah suo- ceeded the appellations of dindr and dirham of the earlier kings, and the

SAINTS OF INDIA. 363

1169-70). His father died when he was a child; he grew in wisdom and studied in Turan and Iran. He received his doctrine from Shaykh Shihabu’ddin Suhrawardi at Baghdad and reached the degree of vice- gerent. He was on terms of great friendship with Shaykh Farid (u’ddin) Shakkarganj, and lived with him for a considerable time. Shaykh (Fakhr- u’ddin) I’raki and Mir Husayni were his disciples. On the 7th of Safar, A. H. 665 (7th November 1266), an aged person of serene aspect sent in to~ hima sealed letter by the hand of hisson Sadru’ddin. He read it and gave up the ghost, and a loud voiée was heard from the four corners of the town : “ Friend is united to Friend.” His resting place is in Multin.

Korpo’ppin Baxatyér KAxi!

Was the son of Kamélu’ddfi Misa and came from Ush of Fargbénah. He lost his father? when very young and privileged by ‘the vision of (the Prophet) Khizr was keenly desirous of meeting with a spiritual guide till the arrival in U’sh of Khwajah Mu’inu’ddin. At the age of eighteen he received his doctrine and became a vicegerent. He profited by the instruction of many saints.at Baghdad and other places, In the desire of meeting with a holy director he came to India and for a time attended Shaykh Bahau’ddin Zakariyé. He arrived in Delhi in the reign of Shams- wddin Altmish. The Khwajah (Mu’inu’ddin) went there on a visit to him and after a little, left him and returned. He was of great service to the people in general. He died on the 14th? of Rabii’ I, A. H. 633 (Satur-_ day, 27th November, A. D. 1235). His tomb is in Delhi wwhere it is visited by all classes.

Suayxn Farinv’ppin Gans 1 SHarrar

Was the son of Jamalu’ddin Sulaymdn,* a descendant of Farrukh

Shah Kabuli, His birthplace was the village-of Khotwal, near Multan.

1, gs, 114. d. of English money of his

• time. See Elphinstone’s Hist. Ind. B. VIII, and note on Akbar’s coinage,

tankah waa divided into ddms and jitals. Sher Sh&h changed tle name of tankch to rupaiya or rapee, adopted by Akbar.

The tankah, according to Ferishta in Aldn’ddin’s time, was eqaal to 60 jttals, (a gétal being about eqnal to a paisa) bat in Mhd. Tughlak’s time was not worth more than 16 jitals. At its pro- per standard it was probably about the same value as the rnpee which in Akbar’s day was of 1745 gr. of pure silver. Queen Elizabeth’s shilling con- tnined 88:8. gr. of pare silver. The rupee of Akbar was, therefore, worth

3

{ See Vol. ii, p. 303,n. 2. The date of his death in Ferishta is Monday night, the 14th of Rabii’ I., A. H.. 634, His father died when. he was 1 year 6 months old.

8 Tho izdfat after )O2 ig an error.

8 The text has Wednesday morning, but this, according to Prinsep’s Tables, must be an error,

4 Ladopt the variant which is confirm. ed by Ferishta, The text has Salmén,

364 SAINTS OF INDIA.

In his early youth he followed the common course of studies. At Moltin he met Khwajah Kutbu’ddin, went with him to Delhi and.was instructed in his doctrine. Some authorities state that he did not accompany him to Delhi, but took his leave on the way and hastened to Kandahar and Sistén, where he set himself to the garnering of knowledge. He then came to Delhi and put himself under disciplinary rule. He had many warrings with the spirit in which he eventually triumphed. When Khwajah Kutba’ddin was on the point of death, there- were present Kazi Hamidu’ddin Nagori, Shaykh Badru’ddin Ghaznavi and many other holy men. They agreed that the habit and other’ personal belongings of the dying man should be committed to Shaykh Faridu’ddin, The Shaykh who was then at the town of Jhansi, on hearing this, went to Delhi, and taking possession of the trast, returned. He was the source of blessings to many “people. He bade farewell to this fleeting world on the 5th of Muharram, A.H. 668! (Monday, 5th September 1269), at (Pak) Pattan in the Pan- jab, which at that time was called Ajodhan.

SwavkH Sapru’ppin Adnie

Was the son of Shaykh Bahdu’ddin. During his father’s life-time he reached the highest degree of sanctity. Sayyids Fakhra’ddin T’raki and

and Jaléd for Jamél as a variant. Ferishta has Kamél. The name Khotwdl in the text has several variants, but Ferishta accords with this reading. Ferishta gives various accounts of the derivation of his epithet Ganj i Shakkar, (the treasare-honse of sweets). Once on going to see his spiritual director, being weak from fasting, his foot slipped and he fell in the mnd, it being the rainy senson. Some of the mud entered his mouth and was changed into sugar, His director, on his arrival, had preter- natural intuition of the event, and told him that the Almighty had, probably, designed him to be a store-house of sweet things and would preserve him in this condition. On his retarn home, he found that this epithet had spread among the people who designated him by it. Another account is that meeting with some banjérds who were taking anit to Delhi, they asked him to bless

their bales that they might sell with profit. He did so, and on their arrival the sacks were discovered to be fall of pagar. A third account is that his mother knowing hig sweet tooth, told him when he was a child, that the Almighty gave sweets to those who said their morning prayers, and at night as a reward surreptitiously put some

_sugar, wrapped in paper, under his

pillow. When he was 12 years of ago she thought it time to discontinue this cheat, but the sagar still continued to be miraculously supplied.

1 The text gives Saturday as the day of the week, but this is not in accord with Prinsep’s Tables. According. to Ferishta, Thursday, the 5th of Muharram, A. H. 7c0, an error of a century by a slip, as he gives the date of his birth as A. I. 584, and his age at death 95, which would fix the date of death ia A. H, 679. Bealo gives A. H. 664.

SAINTS OF INDIA. 365

Mir Husayn were his disciples. He died in Mult4n, where he is buried, in A. H. 709 (A. D. 1309). ‘ 7 Nizxsu’ppin Auntyé.

His name was Muhammad and he was the son of Ahmad Danyal who came from Ghaznin to Badaon in A. H. 632 (A. D. 1234-35), where Nizdmu’ddin was born. For a time he went through the ordinary course of studies and received the epithet of Nizim al-Buhhdih, or the Contro- versialist, and Mahfil Shikan, the Assembly-router. At the age of twenty he went to Ajodhan and became the disciple of Faridwddin Ganj i Shakkar and obtained the key of the treasury of inward illumination. He was then sent to Delhi to instruct the people, and many under his direction attained to the heights of sanctity, such as Shaykh Nasiru’ddin Muhammad Chiragh i Dihli, Mir Khusrau, Shaykh Aléiu’! Hakk, Shaykh Akhi Siraj, in Bengal, Shaykh Wajihu’ddin Yusuf in Chandéri, Shaykh Yakib and Shaykh Kamél in Malwah, Maulénd Ghiyas, in Dhair, Maulana Mughis, in Ujjain, Shaykh Husain, in Gujarat, Shaykh Burhénu’ddin Gharib, Shaykh Muntakhab, Khwéjah Hasan, in the Dekhan. He died in she forenoon of Wednesday, the 18th Rabii’ II, A. H, 725 (3rd April 1325), His tomb is in Delhi.! 1

Snaree Roxyxv’ppin

Was the son of Sadru’ddin Adrif and the successor of his eminent grandfather, At the time when Sultan Kutbu’ddin (Mubarak Shah Khilji, (A. H. 717. A. D. 1317), regarded Shaykh Nizamu’ddin with dis. favour, he sammoned: Shaykh Ruknu’ddin from Multén in tho bope of disturbing his influence. On his arrival near Delhi he met Shaykh Nizim- wddin. Kutbu’ddin on receiving the Shaykh (Ruknu’ddin) asked him “Who among the people of the city was the foremost in going out to meet him ?” He replied: “ The most eminent person of his age.” By this happy answer he removed the king’s displeasure. His restingplace is Multan.

1 “In Ghiydspir,”’ says Forishta, Dithi dir ast: Delhi is still far off.

" which is one of the quarters of new Dol- hi” fle rolates that Ghiyasu’ddin Taghlak Shah who then reigned at Delhi, though outwardly treating Nizimn’ddin with consideration, was ia reality. displeased with him. When about to retarn from his expedition to Bengal ho sent a message to the Shaykh directing him not to await his arrival in Delhi, and that henceforth he was no longer to remain in Ghiyéspir. Tho Shaykh replied, hanis 47 5

Bofore the king’s arrivalin Delhi while at Afghanpar, the building which had been raised by Alaf Khéo for his reception, foll upon the king and crnshed him in the ruins, in Rabi? 1, A. WH. 725. The proverb Dilhi dir ast owes its origin to this event. F

% Ferishta who narrates tho whole story in his memoirs of Nigéma’ddin, does not mention this incident.

366 SAINTS OF INDIA.

Suaygn Javdiv’’ppin Tasr{zi

Was the disciple of Said Tabrizi. After some wanderings, he fell in with Shaykh Shihdébu’ddin Suhrawardi and by his zealous service attained the office of vicegerent. He was on terms of intimacy with Khw4jah Kutbu’ddin and Shaykh Bahéu’ddin Zakariyé. Shaykh Najm- u’ddin Sughra, who was Shaykh u’l Islam at Delhi, bore enmity against

• him and maliciously incited a disreputable woman to accuse the Shaykh of incontinence. Through the miraculous powers of Shaykh Bahdéu’ddin Zakariy4, the falsehood of the charge was established. He then went to Bengal. His tomb is in the port of Dev Mahal.

Saarku Suri Bapuyi.

His birthplace was Oudh. He lived a life of extraordinary abstrac- tion, heedless of all save the worship of God. It is said that KhwAjah Kutbu’ddin and he, with a number of others, were taken prisoners by the Mughals. Hunger and thirst drove the captives to the greatest straits. It was then that the Khwajah, by supernatural power, drew forth from his wallet warm cakes (kék), with which he supplied each one of the party, while the Sifi gave them all to drink from his broken water-vessel (badhnd). From this circumstance the Khwajah was called Kéki,! and the other Badhnt.

Kawdsan Karak?

One of the greatest of the ascetics. He lived apart from worldly intercourse and passed his days in ruined places. Khwajah Kutbu’ddin Ushi sent him the habit of a recluse, which he took and threw into the fire. The bearer reviled him to the Khwajah who replied, “Go and demand it back, so that thou mayest know what has in reality happened.” When he made his request, Khwijah Karak said, “ Go, and take out a cloak from the fireplace, but only your own.” When he went to look, he found that habit among many others, and repented of his conduct. His tomb is at Karrah,? Manikpur.

Ssavxca Nizkuu’ppin Abu’. Muaryap.*

He stood in the relation of a disciple to his maternal uncle Shaykb Shihibu’ddin Ahmad Ghaznavi and flourished during the reign of Shams

J See p. 303, n. 2, Vol. I. Firéz Khilji, and his tomb is stated to 3 Var. Karak, be at Karrah,

8 See Vol. If. p. 167, n. 2. This per- 4 The text inadvertently omits the

sonage is méntioned by Ferishta in his Min Muayyad. His life is briefly given

acconnt of the reign of Jaldlu’ddin in Ferishta.

SAINTS OF INDIA. . 367

wddin Altmish. Khwdajah Kutbu’ddin Ushi and Shaykh Nizému’ddin Auliyd, both considered an interview with him as a great happiness.

Srayka Nasisv’ppin Monammap

Was the disciple of Shaykh Badru’ddin Firdausi of Samarkand, who was the khalifak or vicegerent of Shaykh Sayfu’ddin Bakharzi,! who held the same relation to Shaykh Najmu’ddin Kubra. From thence he came to Delhi and for a time directed the consciences of men, and there’ died. Some say that he and Shaykh I’médu’ddin Tasi were the disciples and vicegerents of Shaykh Ruknu’ddin Firdansi.

K4zr Hamipvu’poin® Ndcori

Was the son of Atau’ddin® of Bokharé, where he was born. In the reign of Mu’izzu’ddin Sam he came to Delhi with his father, and for three years held the office of Kazi at Nagor. Unexpectedly the desire of a life of retirement seized him. Abandoning the world -he journeyed to Baghdad and became the disciple of Shaykh Shihabu’ddin Suhrawardi. There he entered into intimate friendship with Khwajah Kutbu’ddin and after travelling to Hijéz came to Delhi. He died on the night of the 5th of Ramazin, A. H. 644 (Sunday, 9th November, A. D. 1246) without any previous illness. He is buried in Delhi.

Saavkcao’ Hamipu’ppin Suwd.i or Nkcor

Was the son of Shaykh Ahmad. In his early youth he was handsome and rich, but in pursuit of the truth he abandoned the world and applied himself to the practice of austerities. He wore the mantle of discipleship under Khwajah Mou’inu’ddin and attained a high degree of perfection. He was styled Sulfdn w’t-Térikin, the King of Recluses. He rolled up the carpet of life on the 29th Rabii’ II, A. H. 673 (31st October 1274). His restingplace is in Nagor.4

Saarka Nasisv’ppin Murawakkin

Was the brother and disciple of Shaykh Faridu’ddin Ganj i Shakkar, Shaykh Nizdému’ddin used to say: “When I left Badéon for Delhi desiring

1 Békharj, according to Yakut, is a and Sadra’ddin for Hamidu’ddin, and tract between Nfsdébir and Her&t con- in two MSS, the word Suiwdlt ig omitted. taining numerous villages, the original This and the preceding name appear to name being Bdd haraah, ‘the quarter be confounded, and Iam unable to decide whence the wind blows.’ The deriva- the question of identity. tion is scarcely accurate as tu meaning. 4 The Sarkér of Nagor isin Mérwar.

8 Var. Sadru’ddin. See Vol. II. p. 270.

§ One variant reads Kézi for Shaykh,

363 SAINTS OF INDIA.

to pay my respects to Ganji Shakkar, I met Najibu’ddin and was much

benefited by his society.” He died on the 9th of Ramazan, A. H, 660. (27th July 1261).

Suaveg Baprv’ppix

His birthplace was Ghazuah.! Ina dream he received the disciple- ship of Khwajah Kutbu’ddin Ushi, and abandoning all, undertook the toil of a journey in quest of the holy man, In Delhi his desires were fulfilled and he received the office of vicegerent. Kizi Hamidu’ddin, Shaykh Farid u’ddin Ganj i Shakkar, Sayyid Mubérak Ghaznavi, Maulind Majdu’ddin Jurjani, Shaykh Ziydu’ddin Diblavi, and other eminent personages receiv- ed the blessing of his instructions. In his old age when he was unable to move, the sound of a hymn would excite him to ecstasy and he would dunce like a youth. When asked how it was that the Shaykh could dance notwithstanding his decrepitude, he replied: “Where is the Shaykh? It is Love that dances.” His resting-place is at the foot of his own master’s grave.

Suarga Baprv’ppin Isucx

Was the son of Minhdju’ddin Bokhari, but some say he was the son of Ali-b-Ishak, of Delhi, where he was born. He went through the usual course of studies, but some speculative difficulties not being solved in this country he sot out for Bokhéra. At Ajodban, in intercourse with Ganj i Shakkar, his doubts were removed, and becoming his disciple he set himself to mortify his senses. The Shaykh conferred on him the distinc- tion of being both his vicegerent and his son-in-law. He was buried in that place.

Suayvxa Nasirv’ppin Carrdcu-1-Dianavi, on Tae Lamp or Deumt.

His name was Mahmid and his birthplace Delhi. He was the dis- ciple and vicegerent of Shaykh Nizimu’ddin Auliyé. He departed from this world that all must leave on the lst of Ramazin, A. H. 757, (nd Sept. 1356). ‘

Suayka SsararF ( v’ppin) or Pknivar?

His patronymic was Abi Ali Kalandar. He lived asa recluse and

in one of his writings he says of himself: “At the age of forty I came

1 Abu’l Fazl writes indifferently Ghaz- mer the vulgar pronunciation, and the nah and Ghaznin, Yékat calls the for- latter correct. & See Vol. I. p. 543, n, 94,

SAINTS OF INDIA. 869

to Delhi and received instruction under Khwajab Kutbu’ddin. Maulana Wajihu’ddin Paili, Maulin& Sadru’ddin, Maulana Fekhru’ddin Nafilah, Mauliné Nagiru’ddin, Maulané Mu’ino’ddin Daulatabidi, Maulind Najib- wddin Samarkandi, Maulin&é Kutbu’ddin of Mecca, Mauliné Ahmad, Khansari and other, learned men of the day gave me a license to teach and to pronounce judicial decisions, which offices I exerciscd for twenty years. Unexpectedly I received a call from God, and throwing all my learned books into the Jumna, I set out on travel. In Roumelia! I fell in with Shamsu’ddin Tabiizi and Maulana Jaldlu’ddin Rimi who presented me with a robe and turban and with many books, which in their presence I threw into the river. Subsequently I came to Panipat and there lived as arecluse.” His tomb is there.

Saayku AHMAD.

His birthplace was Nahrwaélah, commonly known as Pattan.2 He became the disciple of Hamidu’ddin Nagéri and attained the high rank of a vicegerent; Shaykh Bahau’ddin Zakariyé who was difficult to please, much commended him. He was buried at Badioi. .

Suayea Javan

Was the son of Sayyid Mahmid-b-Sayyid Jaldlu’ddin Bokhéri3 He was universally known as Afakhdiim i Jahdniydén (lord of mankind).

He was born on the Shab-i-Bardt, 14th Shaabin, A. H. 707, (7th Feb., A.D. 1307). He was the disciple of his father and received a vice- gerency from Shaykh Ruknu’ddin Abu’l Fath Suhrawardi. It is said that he journeyed much and had intercourse with Imam Yafai and many others. He visited Shaykh Nasiru’ddin Chiragh i Dihlavi, and became a vicegerent in the Chisht family. He put off his earthly body on Thurs- day, the [d-i-Kurbain, 10th Zil Hijjah, A. H. 785, (2nd Feb., A. D. 1383). He was buried al Uchh, near Multin.*

1 Rim, a vague term. It may mean Turkey or Asia Minor.

8 Seo Vol. IL” p.262.

8 His momoir is given by Ferishta.

4 See Chron. Pathan Kings. Thomas, p. 94. where the mausoleum of the Makhdiim is described by Munshi Mohan Pal as a very poor structure, raised about seven fect from the ground. A Persian inscription with the proverbial veracity of an epitaph, describes the darkness of the world at his deuth, and gives the

date of this eclipse. Tho tomb is stilt visited by pilgrims.

According to Bealo he is.the founder of the Malans and Jaldliya Fakirs, and his memoirs, called the Kit&b-i-Kutbi, have been written by one of his dis- ciples. Te adds that a popniar bolicf presoribes the eating of the earth of his tomb as acurefor folly. It would cor- tainly be unimpeachable evidence of the malady.

370 SAINTS OF INDIA.

Saarxa SaHararo’ppin Muntiri

Was the son of Yabya-b-leriil, the head of the Chishtis. He was instructed under Ganji Shakkar. His childhood passed, he practised a life of austerity in the hills, and in the desire of seeing Shaykh Nizim Auliyd, he went to Delhi with his eldest brother, Shaykh Jalalu’ddin Muhammad. The Shaykh meanwhile had died, but others affirm that he saw him and by his direction went to Najiba’ddin Firdausi, and after discipleship became his vicegerent. Shaykh Shamsu’ddin Muzaffar of Balkh and Shaykh Jalélu’ddin Awadhi, called also Jamal Kital, received the vicegerency from him. He left many works, and amongst them his writings on the mortification of the spirit are in use as exercises. His burial-place is in Behar.

Ssareg JamAvu’ppin HAnsawt

Was the descendant of Aba Hanifah of Kuifah. His profession was to deliver discourses and pronounce judical decisions, but renouncing this office he became the disciple of Shaykh Farid Ganji Shakkar and reach- ed a high degree of virtue. To whomsoever the Shaykh Farid gave a certificate of vicegerency, he would send him to Jamalu’ddin on whose approval the certificate took effect. If he did not approve the Shaykh would say that what Jamal tore up Farid could not repair. He was buried in Hansi.

Suan Mapkr

His title was Badii’u’ddin, High and low throughout Hindustan have great devotion to him and attest his great sanctity. They say that he was the disciple of Shaykh Muhammad Tayfuri Bistami, He never wore garments of rich texture and he held aloof from men. Every Monday his doors .used to be open and a crowd of suppliants collected. As the people respectfully kept back, it was his custom to recite some story in which those who sought advice received their answer ; and whoever heard the response which befitted his case, he” rose blessing him. Strange tales are told of him. The Madari order take their origin from-him. His resting-place is in Makanptr.

On the anniversary of his decease every year, crowds of people from distant parts flock thither, carrying banners of all coloars, and recite his praises. Kazi Shibabu’ddin in the reign of Sultan Ibrdhim Shae: had a quarrel with him of which he found reason to repent,

1 See Vol. Ll. p. 169.

SAINTS OF INDIA. 871

Smareu Noér Kurp-1-Adtam

Was the son of Shaykh Aliu’l Hakk. His true name is Shaykh Niuru’ddin Ahmad-b-O’mar Asad, and he was born at Lahor. He was the disciple and vicegerent of his eminent father, who received the vice- gerency from Shaykh Akhi Siraj. He in some degree attained to the know- ledge of the Ineffable Mystery and became a mystic of exalted degree, as his works and some of his letters, in themselves, testify. Shaykh Husam- wddin Ménikpuri was his vicegerent. He died in A. H. 808 a D., 1405),

and was buried at Pandtah.

Bask IsuXx Macurati

Was born at Delhi and was the disciple of Haji Shaykh Muhammad Kimi! Qis line of successidn through some few intermediaries, traces back to Junayd. Shaykh Ahmad Khatti* thus writes: “I went to Delhi in his company. He showed me his old dwelling and said : “* At the age of twelve I set out in search of spiritual help from saintly souls and chosing the vocation of a recluse received instruction from many eminent persons, and in the city of Kim, in Mauritania, and in! intercourse with Shaykh Muhammad who had made the pilgrimage to Mecca, I attained to the desire of my heart, and became a vicegerent.” He returned to Delbi in the reign of Sultin Muhammad who received him with much honour. Khwijah Mu’inu’ddin instructed him in a vision to retire to Khatta in seclusion, and he followed this direction.

Saarka Aumap Kyat.

His title was Jamalu’ddin and he was born at Delhi, in A. H. 737 (A. D. 1336), of a noble family of that city. He was the disciple and vicegerent of Baba Ishak Maghrabi. His name was Nasirn’ddin, By a freak of fortune he was carried away from his dwelling in a tempest of wind. After a time he was blessed with the instruction of Baba Ishak Moghrabi and garnered a store of secular and theological learning. In the reign of Sultan Ahmad Gajarati (A. D. 1411-43), he came to Gujarat where all classes received him with respect and were loud in his praise. He subsequently travelled in Arabia and Persia and met many eminent doctors. He was buried in Sarkhech, near Ahmadabad.

Suarka Sapru’pp{in

Was the son of Sayyid Ahmad Kabfr-b-Sayyid Jalélu’ddin Bokhari, and was commonly known as Raji Kitdél.$ He was the disciple and vice-

1 Var. Kashmini, Kas{mi. Husayn Bokhari, for the history of the % See Vol. II. p. 24). family.

8 See Ferishta under Jalélu’ddin

372 SAINTS OF INDIA.

gerent of his father and received also the latter distinction from his brother Makhdim-i-Jahdniydn and Shaykh Ruknn’ddin Abu’l-Fath. Sultin Firoz held him in great honour. He slept his last sleep in A. H. 806 (A, D. 1403).

Suarke Andv’opin Mowamsma

Was the grandson of Shaykh Faridu’ddin Ganji Shakkar, and son of Badro’ddin Sulayman. He was a man of a holy and commendable life and attained to great spiritual eminence. On his decease Sultan Muham- mad Tughlak built a mausoleum over his remains,

Saryip Munammap Gr’sdpardz (Lone marr)

Was the disciple and vicegerent of Shaykh Nasiru’ddin Chirdgh-i- Dihli. He became proficient in theology and secular knowledge and by the direction of his spiritual guide went from Delhi to the Dekhan, where he was received with honour by high and low. He diced in A. H. 825 (A. D. 1421-2), and was buried at Kulbargah,!

Kourn-1-AALAM,

His patronymic was Abi Muhammad, and his title Burhanu’ddin. He was the son of Shah Muhammad-b-Sayyid Jalilu’ddin Makhdiim t-Jahdniyén, ond was born in A. H. 790 (A. D. 1388). He was the dis- ciple of his illustrious father and received the vicegerency from Shaykh Ahmad Khatti. In the reign of Sultin Muhammad (Shah Karim, A. D. 1443-51), the descendant of Sultén Muzaffar Shah by two removes,? by order of his father he came to Gujarat and there became eminent in secular and speculative learning. He died in A. H. 857 (A. D. 1453). His tomb is in Batwah,3 near Ahmadabad.

Sui AsiaM.

His name was Sayyid Muhammad, he was the son of Kutb-i-Adlam and was born on the 9th of Zu’lkaadah, A, H. 817 (Isth January 1415) He was the disciple of his father from whom he received the vicegerency and altained to eminent sanctity. Extraordinary miracles are related of

him. Lis days came to an end on the 20th Jumada IL, A. If. 880 (21st Oct. 1475). He lies buried at Rastlabad, near Ahmadabad.

Suaykcu Kersu’ppin

Was the son of Shaykh Burhanu’ddin-b-Shaykh Jamélu’ddin of Hansi and the disciple and vicegerent of Shaykh Nizdmu’ddin Auliyé. Ue

t Gulburgs in the map of the Gazetteer. ® See Vol. Il. p. 261, Kulborga, in Keith Johnstone. 8 Seo p. 240,

SAINTS OF INDIA. 373

lized apart from mon and took no presents from princes. Sult4n Muham- mad in porson went to Hdasi and brought him to Delhi. He is buried at — Hénst.

Sgaren Arf Payrav

Was the son of Mauling Ahmad Mahéyam{. He became proficient in worldly and spiritual knowledge and explained the mysteries after the manner of Shaykh Muliyi’ddin Arabi. He has left many works on theo-~ logy, but most of them are’ho longer extant,

Savyip Munammap Javunrtnt

Was the son of Sayyid Badh Uwaysi. He received instruction under many holy men and was learned in spiritual and secular kuowledge, Carried away by extravagance he laid claim to be a Mahdi! and many followers gathered round him and numerous miracles are ascribed to him. Ho is the origin of the Mehdaviés. From Jaunpir be went to Gujaratand was much in favour with Sultan Mahmid the Great. The narrow-miudedness of worldlings made India intolerable to him and he resolved to pass into Persia, but died at Farrah and was theré buried.

Kaa Kun,

His name was Yusuf and his birthplace Zafaribad. He was the disciple and vicegerent of Shaykh Hasan Tahir, surnamed Kamilu’l Dakk. He was also the disciple of Haji Hamid who was the vicegerent of Husdm- u’ddin Manikpdri. He acquired secular and theological learning. His spiritual guide, during his own lifetime, charged him with the superinten- dence of his vicegerents, and at his death entrusted to his care his own son Abdu’l Aziz, On the 15th of Safar, A. H. 900 (18th November 1494), he rested from the troubles of the-world.

Mir Sayyip Att Kawan.

His birthplace was Siwiuah. He was the disciple and vicegeront of Bahau’ddin Jaunpiri Shattari. Some say that he was instructed by Shaykh Kasé* Shattiri, while others affirm that his convection with all spiritual families can be correctly proved. In the year A. H. 905 (A. D. 1499), he passed from earth. His restingplace is Jaunpur.

KaAzt Maumup

Was the son of Shaykh Jalindha®-b-Muhammad Gujarati. He was

born in Birpiv.* He was the disciple of his father and received the

1 See Vol. I. Biography of Abn’! Faz), 8 Var. Jabland; Ohdnd, see Vol. I. pv p. 106, 645. 8 Var. Kézf, Pézil. 4 Var. Sherpar, Wazirpir.

48

37+ SAINTS OF INDIA.

mantle of vicegerency from Shah Aaglam. Divine love filled his heart and many an edifying discourse fell from his lips. From the age of eleven he was spiritually illumined, and wonderful accounts are given regarding him. On the 13th Rabii’ IT. of the year (A. H. 942. A. D, 1535) in which the Emperor Humdydn defeated Bahidur (Shih) of Gujarat, he passed to the other world and lies buried in Birpir.

Suarkg Maup6p at-Léat

Was the disciple of Baba Nizim Abdal. He went through the usual course of studies for a time under Maulané Abdu’l Ghafir of Lar and sought spiritual guidance from many souls, He was thoroughly versed in the methods of exposition and exegesis of the schools and skilled in the complicated problems of philosophy, and he had met Shih Niamat- u’llah Wali and Shah Kasim Anwar. He slept his last sleep in Ramazin A. H. 937 (A. D. 1530). s

Saarga Hasi App’un Wannkn-at-Bornkei.

Shaykh Jaldlu’ddin Bokhéri had two sons. Makhdim-i-Jahaniyén was the son of Sayyid Mahmid and this (Shaykh Haji) was descended from (the other son), Sayyid Ahmad. He was the disciple and pupil of Sayyid Sadru’ddin Bokhari. He was versed in secular and speculative science, He died in A. H. 932 (A. D. 1525-26),

'

Saayka Aspu’r Razzkx Was born at Jhanjhana’! and was the disciple and vicegerent of Shih Muhammad Hasan and the son of Shaykh Hasan Tahir. At first he went through the usual course of studies which he abandoned for a

higher aim. He died in A. H. 949 (A. D. 1542), and was buried at Jhanjhana.

Suayxa Aspvu’s Kuppvs.

He asserted himself to be a descendant of Abi Hantfah. He was the disciple of Shaykh Muhammad-b-Shaykh Adrif-b-Shaykh Ahmad Abd’ul Hakk. He acquired secular and spiritual learning ond became eminent in theology. Many of bis mystical sayings are recorded. The Emperor Humaytin with a few of the learned, visited him in his cell and an animat- ed controversy took place. He folded up the carpet of his life in A. H. 950 (A. D. 1543). He was buried at Gangoyah,? near Delhi.

1 In the Muzaffarnagar dist., N. W. P. an old and new quarter, the former found- 3 Gangoh, is a town in the Sahd- ed by the legendary hero Réja Gang ranpiir dist., N. W. P. It consists of and the latter by Shaykh Abda’l Kad-

SAINTS OF INDIA. 375

_ Savy Inrduix

Was the son of Mu’inu’ddin-b-Abdu’} Kadir Husayni. His birthplace was Traj.t He was the disciple of Shaykh Bahau’ddin Kadiri Shattdri, He was proficient in all learning and rarely equalled for his good deeds. He had travelled much, and in the reign of Sultan Sikandar Lodi (A. D. 1517-40) went to Delhi. Shaykh Abdu’llah of Delhi, Miyan Ladan, ‘Maulana Abdu’! Kadir the soapmaker, and other celebrated doctors acknowledged his sanctity. He yielded up his fleeting life in A. H. 953 -or 958 (A. D. 1546-51). °° He was buried at Delhi.

Snayxa Aman.

His name was Abda’l Malik, son of Abdu’l Ghaftir. He was the disciple of Shaykh Muhammad Hasan. By the direction of his master, he received various instruction under Shaykh Muhammad Mauddd al-Lari. He died on the 12th Rabii’ IT., A. H. 958 (20th April, 1551).

SuavKH JamAb

Was the son of Shaykh Hamzah and his father’s disciple. He chiefly led a retired life though among worldly occupations. He was buried at Dharst.

I think it fitting to conclude these notices with an account of (the prophets) Khizr and Elias, and thus supplicate an enduring remembrance.

Kuize.

His name was Balyan, the son of Kalyan, the son of Faligh (Phaleg), the son of Adbir (Heber), the son of Shalikh (Sale), the son of Arfukshad (Arphaxad), the son of Sim, (Sem), the son of N&éh (Noé). Some call him Kalyan-b-Malkan, others Malkén, the son of Balyan, the son of Kalydu, the son of Simeon, the son of Sim, the son of Noé. His patrony- mic was Abu’l Abbas. He was called Khizr® because he sat upon a white

das who gives his title to the western soburb, where ghis tomb still stands among other sacred shrines. I. G. See Vol. I, 538, 546. Biochmann’s refer. euces are to Baddoni Vol III and the Mirét’nl Adlam.

1 See Vol. IL, p. 187.

& The generations of Sem to Abram in Gen. xi, descend through Arphaxad, Sale, Heber, and Phaleg. The further generations through Reu and Serag are here displaced for the fictitious substi-

?

tutes. According to D’Herbelot the name of Khizr or Khedhr or Khedher—green, flourishing —was given on account of hig having drunk of the water of life. The prophetical office of Khizr is_ inferred from Sar. xviii, v.64, of the Kordn. “They found one of our servants unto whom we had granted mercy from us and whom we had tanght wisdom befure as.” Fabari has tho hardihood to deny the inference. He gives the tradition that his name was Elias, the son of Melka,

/

376 SSINTS OF INDIA.

skin which through the blessed influence of his fect turned to greon. He was born in the time of Moses within two parasangs of Shiraz, or accord- ing to another opinion in the time of Abraham. Some place him shortly before the mission of Abraham and others, a considerable time after. Shaykh Aldju’ddaulah in his U’rwat (li Ahli’lkhalwat wa’ljalwat) (ansa vivis solitariis et multum conspicuis oblata)! says of him, ‘“ he has many wives, and children are born to him and he gives them names, but no one can find a trace of him. It is now one hundred years and seven months that he has withdrawn hiwself from the world, and no children of his survive.,

• In his early profession of broker he used to buy and sell and secure profit, and borrow and give in pledge; he is also learned in alchemy and knows where the treasures of the world lie buried, and by the command of God expends them in the service of the people, and never acts solely for his own benefit. He delights in music and dances, and will often pass a day and a night together in an ‘ecstatic trance.* A thousand years ago he renewed his youth, and subsequent to that time this occurs after every one hundred and twenty years.” The Shaykh continues: “In this year the period of renewal takes place and from the epoch of the Hijrah up to

this day the renewal has occurred seven times. He associates, and prays

with the (saints called) Kuthb and Abddl8

the son of Heber, the son of Salih, son of Arphaxad, son of Som, son of Noé; that he accompanied Alexander in the scarch forthe water of life which he himself discovered and drank of, thusbecoming immortal] ; that Alexander faited, and so perished; that this wag not Alexander of Greece mentioned in the Koran, but & monarch who lived in the time of Abraham. Tabari is silent on the sub. ject of his professional occupation as a broker, which is scarcely ia accord with a prophotical mission. Abul Fazl dis- dains no information from whatever source, and hus little sense of the slender partition betwoen the sublime and the ridiculous,

1 This work isin Persian by Shaykh Alfu’ddaulah Ahmad-b-Muhammad Sim- nini and was completed on the 23rd Muharram, A. H. 721 (A. D. 81st Jan- uary 1321), in the town of Stfiygbad. Haji Khalifah.

They say that once in Medina

® The word is madhish. I have res-. pected the prophetical character. The word may be interpreted, especially in connection with dancing, to the dis- paragement of his sobriety.

3 Jami, a great authority on points of mysticism, says that the saints are pro- videntially raised to prove the trath of the prophetic mission, and are the sources of grace to the faithful and an asserance of victory to them over the infidels, They are 4,600 in number 3 do not recognise each ether, nor know thoir own dignity and are hidden both from themsclves and mankind. Threo hundred among these have the office of binding and loosing, and are called Akhydr (the Good). Forty others are called Abddi (Just). Seven others are termed Abrdr (Pious). Three others are Nukabdé (Leaders), and one is termed Kufb (Pillar), or Ghaug (Defender). Another authority quoted by Jémi, the

SAINTS OF INDIA. 377

some camel-men were having a fight with stones. A piece of stone struck Khizr on the head and cut it open. The wound chilled and became in- flamed and his illness lasted three months. His prophetic office is disputed though many believe it.” He accompanied Zu’l Karnayn (the two-horned Alexander)! in search of the water of life, and obtained the boon of length of days. Some say that both Elias and Khizr obtained the water of life, and others maintain that Khizr is a spirit who assumes various bodily forms, and they deny him to be of mortal race,

Eis

Was the son of Sem, the son of Noé, and grandfather of Khizr. Some authorities give his father’s name as Yasin and some give Nusayy and different other names. Other$ again derive his genealogy thus,—that he was the son of Phineas, the son of Eleazar (I’izar), the son of Aaron the brother of Moses. There is also a disagreement regarding his prophetical office. The Kufbs, Abddls, and Khizr, stand to him ia the light of disciples. and revere him. He is tall of stature, with a large head; is reserved in speech and absorbed in thought. He has a solemn and awe-inspiring exterior, and the mysteries of all things are revealed to him. It is said that he was raised up for the defence of the faith of Moses and was sent as an inspired guide to the people of Baalbak; when he found that his admonitions were of no avail, he asked for his deliverence from the

authorof the Futihut i Makktyah, says that there are seven Abda!s to each of whom is entrusted one of the seven climates. I restrict my quotations to the neods of the text. The scholar may pursue the definition at p. 21 of the Najahkdtw’? Uns.

1 He received this epithet says Tabari because he traverayd the world from end to end, the word Karn signifying a horn, a term applied also to the excremi- ties of the anivorse. It is given to him in the Kuran (Sur. xviii. vv. 82, 84, 92). D’Herbelot states that ‘Two- horned’ was originally applied to a mon- arch more ancient than Alexander, who lived in the time of Abraham. He also gives Dhuw’lkarnayn as & surname of Khizr. According to Sale, other opinions of the derivation are, that he had two horns to his diadem, or two curls of hair. Soaligor supposes it was ‘occa-

sioned by his being represented in hia coins and statues with borns’as tha son of Jupiter Ammon, or as being compared by the prophet Daniel to a he-goat (Dan. viii), though there repre+ sented but with one horn. It as pro- bably implied his supremacy sud power, as in the case of the noble statue of the two-horned Moses of Michael Angeto in Rone. See Chap. CXEI. Vol. I. of Tabari (H. Zotenborg), for his account of this monarch. The oriental tiadition of Yajéj and Méjaj is here circamsian- tialiy narrated. Their innumerable de- scendants dwelt behind the iron gates at Darband. Their statare was of two cubits, and their ears were so long that they trailed on the ground. When they slept, they laid themselves dowa on one ear while they covered themselves with tho othor. They wont naked and

378 SAINTS OF INDTA.

Almighty,’ and his prayer-was heard. One day he went ap into a hill with Eliseus, the son of Akhtub, and a fiery chariot with its equipage and harness appeared, and leaving Eliseus as his successor he mounted the chariot and vanished from sight.

Extraordinary accounts are told of these two personages Khizr and Elias. The first mentioned roams chiefly over dry land and brings those who have strayed into the right path; the latter keeps by the coasts. Some reverse these.conditions. Each has ten holy persons as their assistants, and both are said to have lived for many years and associate together. Some of the learned, however, do not believe in their existence. Elias is prayed to for the prevention of calamities, and Khizr for their remission after they have befallen.

PRAISE BE TO GOD

That a general review of the state of Hindustan has been now pre- sented and the modes of thought and the customs of its people explicitiy recorded. As time pressed and my mind. was ill at ease, I did not formu- late the proofs of their doctrine nor compare them with the systems of Greece and Persia. Neither did I set down the various conflicting opinions among the Hindus, nor express the thoughts that occurred thereon ‘to this bewildered member of the synod of creation. Were my spirit not too much oppressed by the gloomy toil of these pages and the deciphering of the characters of manuscripts, and did fortune favour and continue its aid, I would first arrange these systems of philosophy in due order and weigh them with those of the Grecian and Persian Schools, contributing some- what of my own impartial conclusions in measured approval or disap- proval, as my fastidious judgment dictated.

bred like cattle, and each before he died produced 1,000 children. Against the gates they could not prevail, but a million of them proceed at sunrise daily, to lick them with their tongues and by even- ing the iron is attenuated to the thinness of an egg shell, but miraculously recovers its thickness inthe night, and this will continue till a deliverer arises amongst them who wili become a believer, and the gates will then yield to their tongues and they will rush throagh. ‘ I “And when he was there and sat ander a japiper tree he requested for his soul that he might die and said, “It is enough for me, Lord, take away my

soul: for I am no better than my fathers.” III, Kings xix. 4,

Thus spoke Eliseus as he fled from Jezabel to Bersabee of Juda. Abnl Fazl confounds Samaria with Heliopolis, and, porhaps, from the similarity of names, places the slaughter of the false pro- phets of Baal at Mount Carmel in Baal- bak. Mount Carmel is still remem- bered as the Jabal Mar Elyds. Elisous was the gon of Saphat of Abelmeula, Tabari gives Elias the genenlogy assigned by Abu’! Fazl and calls Eliseus the son of Akhitib. See Tabariy Zoten- berg, p 419, 10.

SAINTS OF INDIA. 379

Before I had left my obscure home and had approached the gracious threshold of majesty which is the abode where truth meets with recogni- tion, and had mixed with the learned of all creeds, it had been my constant wish that the Bountiful Giver of all desires would -vouchsafe to me the companionship of five intelligent and well-disposed persons, namely, a scholar of literary attainments ; a profound philosopher ; a mystic of holy life; an accomplished rhetorician ; and a thinker of speculative and lofty spirit. It was herein my desire that each of these through his own perspicacity and just views of the divine Government, should not regard the trath as captive to his own discoveries, but ever suspicious of his own liability to error, advance in his inquiries with a bold step so that in the common pursuit of truth, the opinioys of each might be lucidly set forth. The prescriptive duties of investigation might, in such circumstances, be exercised, and convincing argument distinguished from specious fallacy and proof from all beside it, in the hope that from the heart-lacerating thorn- brakes of discord there might be a happy transition into the garden of unity. When from seclusion I became engaged in public affairs, the five wishes of my aspiring mind grew to fourteen, and nine Hindus increased the contemplated list. I found the majority of them, however, of a retrograde tendency, spinning like a silk-worm, @ tissue round themselves, immeshed in their own conclusions, and conceding attainment of the truth to no other, while foxlike, artfully insinuating their own views. In dejection of spirit as one crazy, I nigh came unto losing the control of my reason and break- ing the warp and woof of life. On a sudden the star of my fortune blazed in the ascendant and the Imperial grace interposed in my favour, and thus rescued in some measure from vain imaginings, [ found peace in the pleasant pastures of universal toleration.

Ltrust that by the happy destiny of this God-fearing monarch this union will be realised, and my long-cherished desires bloom with the radiance of fulfilment.

O Lord! Unto my soul its sight restore,

“And let my feet Thy stair of Truth explore. The treasures of Thy clemency set free

And bid my spirit find its goal in Thee.

Grant through life’s busy ways still at my side, Thy grace may aid me and Thy mercy guide,

oR ON

BOOK THE FIFTH. COMPRISING THE HAPPY SAYINGS OF HIS MAJESTY,

AND THE Concusiox, With a brief notice of the Author.

(P. 227.) As I have now succinctly described the Sacred Institutes, in acknowledgment of my own obligations and as a gift of price to the xest of mankind, it appears fitting that I should record somewhat of the sayings of his Imperial Majesty in relation both to secular and spiritual concerns, in order that his words and actions may become known to far -and near.

The following are among his utterances :—

There exists a bond between the Creator and the creature which is not expressible in language.

Each thing has a quality inseparable from it and the heart is inflaenced by some irresistible attachment to the power of which it submits and builds thereon the foundation of its sorrows and joys. Whosoever by his brilliant | destiny withdraws his affections from all worldly concerns, attains to the Divine love which is above all others.

(P. 228.) The existence of creatures depends on no other bond than this, Whoever is gifted with this wisdom sball reach a high perfection.

Whosoever habituates himself to preserve this sacred relation, will be withheld from it by no other occupation.

Hinda women fetch water from their rivers, tanks or wells, and many of them bear several pitchers one above the other upon their heads and converse and chat freely with their companions, walking the while over any inequalities of ground, If the heart in like manner preserves the balance of its pitchers, no harm will befall them. Why should men be inferior to these in their relations with the Almighty.

When this interior affection both in its immaterial,and matorial aspects is thus strengthened, who can sever the attachment of the rational soul to the Supreme Being?

From the practice of real ascetism the transition is easy to unlawful ’ mendicancy. Since a thing is best comprehended by contrast with its opposite, the latter also thas comes to be pleasurably regarded.

The intellect will not with the full assent of reason, confessedly oppose the divine law, but some do not believe in the divine books, nor credit that the Supreme essence that is tongueless will express itself iv human speech, while others again differ in their interpretation of them.

THE SAYINGS OF HIS MAJESTY. 381

The divine grace is shed upon all alike, but some from unprepared ness in due season and others from incapacity are unable to pr ont thereby ; the handiwork of the potter evidences this truth.

The object of outward worship which they affect to call a new divine

7, institute, is for the awakening of slumberers, otherwise the praise of God comes from the-heart not the body.

The first degree of dutiful obedience is not to scowl with knitted brows when trials befall, but regarding them as the bitter remedies of a physician, to accept them with a cheerful countenance.

That which is without form cannot be seen whether iu sleeping or

• waking, but it is apprehensible by force of imagination. To behold God in vision is, in fact, to be understood in this sense. é Most worshippers of God ‘are intent on the advancement of their own desires not on His worship.

As the dark hair turns to grey, the hope arises that this bue which is never far distant, may be kept burnished by the wondrous workings of destiny, in order that the rust of the heart may be cleansed with it and its vision illumined.

Some there are who maintain that men walk in opposition to the will of God, and that their salvation depends on their renunciation of this

| evil habit; but he who is spiritually illumined knows that none can effec- tually oppose His commands, and physicians from this reflection provide a remedy for those that are sick.

Kach person according to his condition gives the Supreme Being a name, but in reality to name the Unknowable is vain.

(P, 229.) The object of an appellative is the removal of ambiguity, but this is not predicable of the All Holy Essence.

There is no need to discuss the point that a vacuum in nature is im- possible. God is omnipresent.

_ Allthat men account good and bad and virtue and vice, arises from the wondrous phases of God’s grace: the discordant effects result from human action.

*-To imputé the existence of evil to Satan is to make him a co-partner of the Almighty. If he is the robber, who is responsible for his being one ?

The legend of Satan is an old-world notion, Who has the power to oppose the will of God?

A peasant was seized with a desire to seek the Lord. His spiritual guide learning his,love for his cow, placed him in a confined space and directed him to exercise himself in meditation on that object. After u time he called him forth to test him. As the man had been absorbed in that contemplation, be persuaded himself that he had horns, aud replied

49

382 THE SAYINGS OF HIS MAJESTY.

that his horns prevented his exit. His director seeing his single-minded- ness, by degrees weaned ‘him from his error.

The superiority of man rests on the jewel of reason. It is meet that he should labour in its burnishing, and turn not from its instruction.

A man is the disciple of his own reason. If it has naturally a good lustre, it becomes itself his director, and if it gains it under the direction of a higher mind, it is still a guide.

Commending obedience to the dictates of reason and reproving o slavish following of ‘others need the aid of no arguments. If imitation were commendable, the prophets would have followed their predecessors.

Many whose minds are diseased persuade themselves into an affectation of health, but the spiritual physician recognises the impress on their brows.

As the body becomes sickly from indisposition, so the mind has its disorder ; knowledge decays until-a remedy i is applied.

For a disordéred mind there is no healing like the society of the virtuous.

To read the characters of men is a thing of great difficulty’ and is not in the power of every one.

-£; The soul notwithstanding its superiority, akse the tone of the natural disposition by association with it and the brilliancy of its lustre thus becomes dimmed with dirt.

(P. 230.) Through dulluess of insight the concerns of the soul which are the source of happiness are neglected, while the pampering of the body which enfeebles the spirit, is engerly practised.

Men through attachments to their associates acquire their disposition, - and much of good and of evil thus results to them.

When his understanding is still undeveloped, man is in constant change of mood; at one time taking joy in festivities, at another sitting disconsolate in the house of mourning. When his vision is raised to higher things, sorrow and joy withdraw.

Many in the conceit of their imagination and entangled in the thorn- brake of a blind assent to tradition, believe themselves to be followers of reason, whereas if it be carefully regarded they are not in its vicinity.

Many simpletons, worshippers of imitative custom, mistake the tradi- tions of the ancients for the dictates of reason, and garner for themselves eternal perdition.

Acts and words are variously the effects of good sense, or of desire or of passion, but through the withdrawal of impartial judgment the facta are hoisily misrepresented. »

When rising from sleep which is a semblance of, death, one should be earnest in giving thauks for a renewed life by cal thoughts and virtu- ous actions.

THE SAYINGS OF HIS MAJESTY. 383

Conscience requires that rectitude and probity which is commendable in the sight of all men, should be associated with appropriate action.

One should first labour for one’s own edification and then turn to the acquisition of knowledge in the hope of ‘lighting the lamp of inden and extinguishing the risings of dissension.

Alas! that in the first flush of youth our inestimable lives are un- worthily spent. Let us hope that in future they may virtuously terminate.

The vulgar believe in miracles, but the wise man accepts nothing without adequate proof. :

Although temporal and spiritual prosperity are “pased on the due worship of God, the welfare of children first lies in obedience to their fathers. :

Alas! that the Emperor Froméyin died so early and that I had no opportunity of showing him faithful service !

The sorrows of men arise from their ‘seeking their fortune before its _ destined time, or above what is decreed for them,

(To his son.) My good counsel is your brother. Hold it in honour.

(P. 231.) Hakim Mirza! is a memorial of the Emperor Humayin. Though he has acted ungratefully, I can be no other than forbearing.

Some bold spirits asked permission to lie in ambush aud put an end to that rebel. I could not consent, thinking it remote from what wag befitting in his regard. Thus both that distinguished memorial of majesty escaped from harm, and my devoted friends were shielded from peril.

The concerns of men are personal to themselves but through the predo- minance of greed and passion they intrude upon (those of) others.

Itis meet that worldlings should lead a busy life in order that idleness may be discouraged and the desires may not wander towards unlawful objects,

It was my object that mendicancy should disappear from my domi- nions. Many persons were plentifully supplied with means, but through the malady of avarice it proved of no avail.

The world of existence is amenable only to kindness. No living creature deserves rejection.

The impulse of avarice, like pride, is not consonant with magnanimity, and, therefore, should not be suffered to enter or influence the mind.

The office of a spiritual director is to discern the state of the soul and

——

1 Akbar’s brother, king of Kabul. He Akbar’s reign. See Vol. I. p. 462, and rebelled against Akbar, invaded Iudia Index under Mbd. Hakim Mirzé. and besieged Labor in tho llth yoar of

384 THE SAYINGS OF HIS MAJESTY.

to set about its reform, and lies not in growing the locks of an Ethiop and patching a tattered robe and holding formal discourses to an audience.

By guidance is meant indication of the road, not the gathering together of disciples. i

To make a disciple is to instruct him in the service of God, not to make him 4 personal attendant.

Formerly I persecuted men into conformity with my faith and deemed it Islim. As I grew in knowledge, I was overwhelmed with shame. Not being a Muslim myself, is was unmeet to force others to become such, What constancy is to be expected from proselytes on compulsion ?

Clemency and benevolence are the sources of happiness and length of days. Sheep that produce but one or two young ones in a year are in great numbers, while dogs notwithstanding their prolificacy are few.

The phrase is remarkable that one sits to show the road, but one rises to rob it.4

The difficulty is to live in the world and to refrain from evil, for the _ life of a recluse is one of bodily ease.

Although knowledge in itself is regarded as the summi’ of perfection, yet unless displayed in action it bears not the impress of worth; indeed, it may be considered worse than ignorance.

(P. 232.) Men from shortsightedness frequently cit their own ad- vantage in what is harmful to them: how much the more must they err in regard to others.

Men through blindness do not observe what is around them, intent only on their own advantage. If a cat defiles its claws in the blood of a pigeon tliey are annoyed, but if it catches a mouse they rejoice ? In what way has the bird served them or the latter unfortunate animal done them wrong P

The first step in this long road is not to give the rein to desire and anger, but to take a measured rule and align one’s actions thereon.

When the light of wisdom shines, a man distinguishes what is truly his own. What he has is only borrowed.

In a storehouse, mice and sparrows and other animals have a common interest but from jll-nature each thinks the place his own.

Most people avoid the society of those they dislike, and do not let the displeasure of God occupy their thoughts.

It is my duty to be in good understanding with all men. If they walk in the way of God’s will, interference with them would be in itself repre-

i alluding to the Persian idiom. wile ustsdy) y (ped cs ledd ys

THE SAYINGS OF HIS MAJESTY. 385

hensible: and if otherwise, they are under the malady of ignorance and deserve my compassion. : ;

An artisan who rises to eminence in his profession has the grace of God

. with him. The worship of God is the occasion of his being honoured.

Sleep and food are a means for the renewal of strength in seeking to do the will of God. Miserable man from-folly regards them as an end.

Although sleep brings health of body, yet as life is the greatest gift of God, it were better that it should be spent in wakefulness.

A man of penetration finds no (preordained) injustice. He regards adversity as a chastisement.

A wise man does not take heed for his daily sustenance. The analogy of bondsman and servant is an exhortation to him.

Happy is he who hath an.ear wherewith to hear and an eye to see, for as truth cannot be overthrown,‘a blind man in posssession thereof will not follow an evil course.!

Children are the young saplings in the garden of life. To love them is to turn our minds to the Bountiful Creator.

(P. 233.) To bestow in alms 3 coin which bears the impress of the name of God is very reprehensible. :

In our prayers we should avoid the asking of temporal blessings in which the humiliation of snother person is involved.

As to the seeking after God being thought to consist in coutrolling the natural bent of the spirit, most people find the solution of their troubles therein ; were it otherwise, fruition would in many become a stair to further gratification.

The material world is analogous to. the world of the spirit, for asin the one what is given in trust is again reclaimed, so in the other, works are required in accordance with knowledge. ,

In the receiving of admonition there is no respect of age or wealth. No distinction is recognized between the tender in years or the poor and others in the necessity of listening to the truth.

The prophets were all illiterate.8 Believers should therefore retain one of their sons in that condition.

t The latter part of this sentence is 8 “Who shall follow the apostle, the

corrapt in the reading. Three variants illiterate prophet.” Kardn vii ; and again in the notés are unintelligible, and one “Tt ig he who hath raised up amidst MS. omits it altogether. My rendering the illiterate Arabians an apostie from is, therefore, conjectaral. I wonld sug- among themselves.” Sur. Ixii. gest the following emendation :

=- Gray & ty 3 sSlige® s

dztdy a ashF w By 9 F Ij!

386 THE SAYINGS OF HIS MAJESTY.

Since the poet builds on fiction, his creation cannot be seriously ac- cepted. -

A rope dancer performs with feet and hands, a poet with his tongue.

He who happily introduces the verses of another in his own compo- sitions or appositely quotes them, discovers the other’s merit and his own.

A certain religeus was addicted to gluttony. He met a discreet ad- viser who gave him a dish of pumpkin which he was to fill and eat thereof daily, and to draw a sectarial mark on his forehead with pounded lote-fruit (Rhamnus Zizyphus). At the same time, to throw him off the scent, he taught him a prayer to be recited. In a short time his failing was cured.

• Would that we did not hear of such differences of opinion among pro- fessors of secular learning, nor were confounded by contradictory commen- taries and explanations of tradition.

Discourses on philosophy have such a charm for me that they distract me from all else, and. I forcibly restrain myself from listening to them, lest the-necessary duties of the hour should be neglected.

There are but three causes of aberrant judgment, viz., incapacity of mind; the society of enemies in the guise of friends; the duplicity of friends that seek their own interest. P ,

Would that none other than the prudent had the reading and writing of letters, in order that the base might have no opportunity of fabrication for their own purposes, or of persuading short-sighted simplotons by every specious lie.

The detection of fabrication is exceedingly difficult, but it can be compassed by weighing well the words of the speaker.

Although I am the master of so vast a kingdom, and all the appliances of government are to my hand, yet since true greatness consists in doing the will of God, my mind is not at ease in this diversity of sects and creeds ; and apart from this outward pomp of circumstance, with what satisfaction in my despondency, can I undertake the sway of empire? I await the coming of some discreet man of principle, who will resolve the difficulties ! of my conscience.

On the completion of my twentieth year, I experienced an inter- nal bitterness, and from the lack of spiritual provision for my last journey, my soul was seized with exceeding sorrow.

(P, 234.) A darvesh on the northern bank of the Ravi, entered his cell and allowed no one to frequent it. On being asked the reason, he

———

1 (SES must be an errorfor SUES oy caas i

THE SAYINGS OF HIS MAJESTY. 387

replied, that he was engaged in a special devotion, and that until the death of Abdv’llah Khan, governor of Tiirda,! he would not leave it, nor allow any one access to him. His majesty said, “If he is one whose prayers are heard, then let him close the door of bis good works upon us, otherwise let him refrain from this folly.”

If I could but find any one capable of governing the kingdom, I would . at once place this burden upon his shoulders and withdraw therefrom.

If L were guilty of an unjust act, I would rise in judgment against myself, What shall I say, then, of my sons, my kindred and others ?

The Giver of desires has committed to my charge many a noble for- tress. No one has thought of provisioning them, yet confiding in the strength of God, no further apprehension alarms me.

Whoever secks from me permission to retire from the world will meet with cheerful acquiescenge in his desires. If he bas really withdrawn his heart from the world that deceives but fools, to dissuade him therefrom would be very reprehensible ; but if he only affects it from osten- tation, he will receive the requital thereof. :

If in ailments of the body which are visible, its physicians have made and do make such errors of treatment, in the disorders of the soul which is invisible and ‘its remedies scarce attainable, what medicine will avail ?

It was the effect of the grace of God that I found no capable minis- ter, otherwise people would have considered my measures had been devised by him.

On the day when the Almighty wills that my life should cease, I also would not further prolong it.

My constant prayer to the Supreme Giver is that when my thonghts

] and actions no longer please Him, he may take my life, in order that I may not every moment add to His displeasure.

The solution .of difficulties depends on the assistance of God, and the evidence of the latter is the meeting with a discreet spiritual director. Many porsons through not discovering such a one, have their real capabili- ties obscured.

1 See Vol I. -XXX. and 468; this prince had written to Akbar regarding his apostasy from Isldm, and Miran Sadr and Hakim Humém were sent on an embassy to explain matters with an ambiguous Arabic verse to the effect that, aa, God and the Prophet had not escaped the slander of men neither could His Majesty. One of the letters in the col-

lection called ‘Inshéi Abu’l Fazl’ ig addressed to this monarch, in reply to his inquiry whether Akbar had renounced Islam. This story is so obscurely worded that I am not sure whether I have soized the sense of the concluding linos. I infer that Akbur wished it to be known that be had no grudge sgainst Abda’llah,

388 : THR SAYINGS OF HIS MAJESTY.

(P. 235.) One night my heart was weary of the burden of life, when suddenly, between sleeping and waking, a strange vision appeared to me, and my spirit was somewhat comforted.

Whosoever with a sincere heart and in simplicity of mind follows my institutes will profit, both spiritually and temporarily, to the fulfilment of his wishes.

The source of misery is self-aggrandizement and unlawful desires.

The welfare of those who are privileged to confidential counsel at the court of great monarchs has been said to lie in rectitude and loyalty; no self-interest or mercenary motive should intervene; and especially in times of the royal displeasure, if no conciliatory language will avail, they should be silent.

A special grace proceeds from the sun in favour of kings, and for this reason they pray and consider it a worship of the Almighty; but the short- sighted are thereby scandalized.

How can the common people possessed only with the desire of gain, look with respect upon sordid men of wealth. From ignorance these fail in reverence to this fountain of light, and reproach him who prays to it. If their understanding were not at fault how could they forget the Surah! beginning “ By the sun,” &c.

The reason why the hair of the head turns grey first is because it comes before the beard and the whiskers.

I have heard no good reason from the Hindus for the sounding of the gong and blowing the conch af the time of worship. It must be for the

| Purpose of warning and recollection.

When it rains, if light breaks from the west, the air will clear, for, radiance from the quarter whence darkness proceedeth is a harbinger of light.

The reason why under the Muhammadan law an inheritance seldom passes to the daughter notwithstanding that her helplessness seems deserv- ing of greater consideration, is that she passes to her husband’s house and the legacy would go to a stranger.

The mcat which is nearer the bone is sweeter because it contains the essence of the nutriment.

LThe XCI. of the Kurén. “By the bailt it: by the earth and him who gan and its rising brightness; by the apread it forth ……… how is he who hath moon when she followeth him: by the purified the same, happy, bat he who day when it showeth its splendour: by hath corrupted the same is migerable.”— the night when it covereth him with Sale.

darknegs: by the heaven and bim who

THE SAYINGS OF HIS MAJESTY. 389

Fruit in a plentiful season is never so-luscious and sweet, because the

source of supply of these qualities is proportionutely subdivided.

The tales of the ancients, that, in certain places of worship fire from heaven was present, were not credited, and it was held to be exaggeration, it not being known that a mirror or the sun-crystal! being held to the sun

would produce fire.

For all kinds of animals there is a fixed breeding season. Man alone is constantly under the impulse of desire to that end. Indeed, by this providential multiplication of the species a greater stability is given to the bond of union upon which the foundation of social life depends.

(P. 236.) Eating anything that dies of itself is unlawful. There is

a natural repugnance to it.

A man’s being eaten aftét he has been killed i is the just requital of

his own baseness.*

The prohibition against touching anything killed by the act of God, the cause of which is unknown, is in order to respect the deed. Blood contains the principle of life. To avoid eating thereof is to

honour life.

The birth of ugliness from beauty is not surprising. Indeed, if a man were to beget a different kind of animal, it would not be extraordi- nary, for as a matter of fact forms are designed from concepts, and since these are capable of being imagined, their production may take place.

If the love of the husband prevail, he but idolises his own partialities: and begets a daughter; if the wife +has the stronger affection, the image of her husband is oftenest present, and a boy appears.

As to what is said in ethical treatises, that an enemy should not he despised, the meaning is that since friendship and enmity are but phau- tasms of the divine dispensation, one should overlook the interveniny

enemy and view the Deity beyond,

Many a disciple surpasses his master, and yet his attitude to him must be one of deference and submission.

Miracles occur in the temples of every creed. This is the product of mevtal enthusiasm, for the truth can be but with one.

A gift is the deposit of a pledge and a lightening of an obligation from

a former debt.

The origin of wearing the sacred thread (in a Brahman), is that

l The Strya-kdnta or ‘sun-loved,’ a sanstone or crystal, cool to the touch and snpposed to possess fabnlous pra- perties because, like a glass leng, it gives

5U

out hort when exposed to tho rays of the san. Monier-Williams, S. D. 3 Or perhaps ‘his owa gormnndising

\ nature.’

890 THE SAYINGS OF HIS MAJESTY.

\ in ancient times they used to pray with a rope round their necks, and their successors have made this a religious obligation.

In Hindustan no one has ever set himself up as a prophet. The reason is that pretensions to divinity have superseded it.

When any one is said to be of a good, or low origin, what is meant is, that one of his ancestors attained to spiritual or temporal distinction, or was known to fame from connection with some city or profession. It appears to me that good-breeding should involve good works.

It is said that greater friendship is shown by the receiver of a gift than by the giver;! but I consider that in the giver it is personal. He does not give but to a worthy object, and this can be evidenced in a receiver only by a gift.

(P. 237.) In Hindu treatises it is said that, in the acquisition of learn- ing or of wealth, 2 man should so toil as though he were never to grow old, or to die’ But since the luxurious, from fear of these two sources of despair, withhold themselves from labour, it appears to me that in acquiring these twin needs of a worldly career, we should regard each morrow as our last, and postpone not the work of one day to the next.

The Hindu philosopher says that in the garnering of good works, one should have death constantly in view, and, placing no reliance on youth and life, never relax one’s efforts. But to me it seems that in the pursuit of virtue, the idea of death should not be entertained, so that freed from hopes and fears, we should practise virtue for the sake_of its own worth. _

It is strange that,in the time of our Prophet no commentaries on the Kuraén were made, so that differences of interpretation might not after- wards arise. ‘

(Regarding the saying), “‘ the love of a cat is a part of religion,” if the noun of action is not in construction with the agent, as Mir Sayyid Sharif put it to escape a difficulty, it would not be humane to avoid a cat or regard it with repugnance. Thesilence of Mauléné Saadu’ddin from this (obvious) reply is, therefore, not to be defended.®

1 Thie recalls the lines in Dryden’s 3“ The learned man may fix his “ Cleomenes :” thoughts on science and wealth, as if he “ A noble soul were never to grow old, or to die: but Does much that asks: he gives you when death seizes him by the locks, he power to oblige him. must then prattise virtue.” Introd. Know, Sir, there is a proud modesty “ Hitopndesa.” Sir W. Jones’ Transla- in merit tion. Averse from begging and resolved 8 The ephemeral controversies of the to pry Court which Abu’) Faz] seemed to regard

Ton times the gift it aske.” as enduring to all time, and of which

THE SAYINGS OF HIS MAJESTY.

“What the ancients have said, viz., that the heaviest trials fall one _ prophets, next upon the saints, and by proportionately diminishing degrees upon the virtuous, does not commend itself to me. How can the elect of ‘God be thus punished ?” Some of the philosophers suggested to his Majesty that these were trials sent by God. The king was amazed and said: “ How can trials be justifiable by one who knows both what is hidden and what is manifest P”

Every sect favourably regards him who is faithful to its precepts

and in truth he is to be commended. If he be engaged in worldly pursuits he should pass his days in righteousness and well-doing, and-in the garner- ing the needs of the time; and if of a retired habit, he should live in warfare with himself and at peace with others, and regard praise and blame indifferently. » _ Some are of opinion that the greater the number of intermediaries between him that seeks the truth and him that has reached it, the more the grace of God abounds. But this is not so: rather the attainment thereto is dependent on attrahent grace and good works.

It is strange that the Imamis make beads of the earth of Karbalé, and believe that it is mixed with the blood of the Imam (Husayn).

Whoever bestows his garments upon ignoble people, upon rope- dancers and buffoons, it is as though he’ went through their antics

himeelf.

the subjects and actors have long been forgotten, are to be elucidated only on conjecture. The saying alluded to in the text appears to be a parody on the tradition, ‘ the love of country is a part of religion’ (wet we urey} 2). Some traditions regarding the cat have been preserved and will be found in the Haydt wl Hayawdn [Vita animalium: auctore Shaykh Kamélu’ddin Mha. b-Bon [ea Demiri, anno, A. H. 808 (A. D. 1405) mortuo, Haj. Khai]. One of these, on the authority of Salman al-Farsi, says that “the Prophet gave an admonition respecting the oat,” 4. e., its humane treatment. Abi BHurayrah, the well- known companion, who received his epithet (father of the kitten), on account of having always a kitten with him, nar- rated a tradition that a woman was

punished in hell for maltreatment of a cat. Ayesha asked him if this was trae. He replied, he had heard it from Maham.- mad’s own lips. She rejoined that a Maslim woman could not have been so punished on account of a cat, and that the culprit was an infidel. He should, therefore, be careful how he repeated these traditions. Other examples are givon on the spiritual advantages of kindness to these animals which cannot be of general interest. In explanation of the grammatical point, I suggest that what ia meant is the duty of mankind in the humane treatment of cats, and, no doubt, all other animals ; but if the word ‘love’ be in construction with a definite agent, and it be said that “ the Jove of Zayd towards a cat is a part of religion,” the application is consurable.

TRE SAYINGS OF HIS MAJESTY.

oa

“He alone whose knowledge is superior in degree to that of the author of a work should make selections therefrom, otherwise it is not a choice of ’ passages but showing his own merit.

(P. 237.) The legend of Alexander’s stratagem against Porus! does not carry the appearance of truth. A man thas raised to power by the Almighty does not act in this manner especially when he thinks his end drawing near.

One should write out a quatrain of Omar Khayyam, after reading an ode of Hafiz, otherwise the latter is like drinking wine without a relish.

Men give the names of eminent men to their sons. Although it is done by way of good augury, it is not respectful. And what is most curious is that this is chiefly practised by theologians who do not believe in metempsychosis ; while the Hindus who do, refrain from it.*

It isa remarkable thing that men should insist on the ceremony of circumcision for children who are otherwise excused from the burden of all religious obligations.

If the reason of the prohibition of swine (as food), be due to its vileness, lions and the like should be held lawful.

Burial of the dead is an ancient custom: otherwise why should a traveller on the road of annihilation bear a load. He should return as he came.

One day Kalij Khén brought a register to His Majesty, and said, “I have named this the Khuldsatu’] Mulk ” (the Abstract of the Kingdom). His Majesty replied: ‘“‘ This name would more befit a province, a district, or a town: it should rather be called Hakikatu’l Mulk” (the Real State of the Kingdom). Kalij Khan then represented his own capacity in affairs. Others who were present raised objections: During the discussion his knowledge of mathematics was questioned; on this he was silent. but introduced religion. His Majesty uttered the following verse : ,

“ Hath earth so prospered ‘neath thy care, That heaven thy vigilance must share ? ”

On one occasion at a meeting for philosophical discussion, one of the poets in the assembly uttered the following couplet :

“The Messiah his friend, Khizr his guide, Joseph riding a at his rein, Oh! would that my sun might meet with this honour.”

—

1 See p. (Alexander of Greece, MS.) 3 This is scarcely true. The names He must refer to the passage of the of Ram Autér, Krishan or Kishan Chand, Hydaspes. The morality is somewhat Rém Kishan, Arjan, Hanuman, Ganésh finc-drawn. He might have lovked at and many others are common enough.

homne for far graver delinquencies.

THE SAYINGS OF HIS MAJESTY.

His Majesty said “ instead of ‘ my sun’ if you read ‘ my knight’, it wore be more appropriate.” Discerning judges were loud in applause.

One day the following quatrain of Malla Talib Isfahani, in an elegy on Hakim Abu’l Fath and congratulatory on the arrival of Hakim Humam,! was quoted in His Majesty’s presence :—

“My. brothers in their love what concord show ! This homeward comes ere that doth journeying go That went, and with him all my life he bore; _

’ This comes, and coming doth that life restore.”

His Majesty remarked that the word Ylis was prosaic and it would better run, (353, 3. The critics: much approved.

(P. 239.) Solicitation is reprehensible from every man, especially from those who are disinterested and of lofty spirit for these defile not their hands save with necessities: therefore to solicit of them is to dis- honour oneself and them. .

Difference of capacity is the cause of the continuance of mankind.

The truth-is such that where it reaches the ear it must penetrate the heart. Conviction is irresistible.

The sovere illness of the young suggests the doctrine of metempsy- chosis.

What the divine books say, that great sinners in ancient times were changed into monkeys and boars, is credible.

. If the idea were merely that souls were transfused into a few deter- minoate shapes, this would be unworthy; but if the strange workings of destiny joined them to mineral, vegetable and animal life in serial pro- gression till they were exalted to a high dignity, where would be the

wonder P

Some of the ancients say that the punishment of Bak continues through various bodies, and that a body is: thus prepared for the expia- tion of each period—this corroborates the above,

To light acandle is to commemorate the (rising of the) sun. To whomsoever the sun sets, what other remedy hath he but this.

The darkness of smoke is due to the absence of light and its own worthlessness.

When the time of death approaches, a certain sadness supervenes, and when it is at hand, a faintness also ensues. This, indeed, indicates that the gift and withdrawal of hfe are in the hands of God.

we ee

1 See Vol. I, p. 474.

THE SAYINGS OF HIS MAJESTY.

The ear is the sentinel of the voice. When the speaker becomes deaf “he loses the need of speech.

Although thieving is worse than fornication when it is practised when the faculties are first developed and in old age, yet because the com- mission of the latter grave sin contaminates another as well as the doer thereof, it involves the greater guilt.

I It is not right that a man should make his stomach the grave of animals,

The killing of an innocent man is a benevolence towards him, for it is committing him to the mercy of God.

The authority to kill should be bis who can give life, and he who performs this duty at the command of right indgment, does so with refer- ence to God.

(P. 240.) When an ‘herinuias. passes, while a daughter is alive, to the brother’s child, it having been transmitted to the deceased from his father, there is justification, otherwise how can it be equitable ?

A city may be defined to bea place where artisans of various kinds dwell, or a population of such an extent that a voice of average loudness will not carry at night beyond the inhabited limits.

A river is that which flows throughout the whole year.

Kingdoms are divided from each other by rivers, mountains, deserts or languages.

In cold climates such as Kabul and Kashmir guns should be made thicker than ordinary, so that dryness and cold may not crack them.

A moderate breeze differs relatively in reference to a mill or a ship, but what is commonly understood by this term is one of sufficient force to extinguish a lamp.

The interpretation of dreams belongs to the world of augury. For this reason it is established that none but a learned man of benevolent character should be entrusted to draw a good omen therefrom.

Rhetoric consists in the language being commensurate with the capa- city of the hearer, and that a pregnant meaning shall be pithily expressed in a manner intelligible without difficulty. Eloquence requires the delivery to be accompanied with elegance of diction.

One moral may be drawn from the instances of the ruler of Egypt . (Pharaoch),! and Husayn Mansur (Halléj), namely that presumptive regard of oneself and regard of God are essentially distinguished.

1 This I conceive to be the meaning Never more conspicuous than in these of this allusion. The serious obscurity records of conversation. The story of of language which Abu’l Faz] affects is Mansar is well kuown: absorbed iu his

THE SAYINGS OF HIS MAJESTY,

Dignity is the maintenance of one’s station.

A wise man was asked the reason of the long life of the vulture ana the short existence of the hawk. He replied, ‘‘ The one injures no animal, and the other hunts them. ;

On this His Majesty remarked, “If the penalty to a hawk that lives only on animal life, be a brief span of existence, what shall happen ‘to man who notwithstanding abundant provision of other kinds, does’ not restrain himself from meat ?

Nevertheless, the thought that harmless animals are lawful and animals of prey forbidden food, is full of suggestion.

Learning to speak comes from association, otherwise men would remain inarticulate.

But when the experiment wus tried it was shown through the instance of a dumb man, how, though silent in such a case, he might make himself understood by strangers.}

(P. 241.) Whosoever imprecates upon another the vengeance of God will not be heard. It was this reflection that comforted a man who had been cursed by others.

Since I used nitre (for cooling water), I recognise the rights of salt (fidelity), in water also2

When I came to India I was much attracted by the elephants, and I thought that the use of their extraordinary strength was 8 prognostication of my universal ascendancy.

Men are so accustomed to eating meat that were it not for the pain, they would undoubtedly fall to on themselves.

Would that my body were so vigorons as to be of service to eaters of meat who would thus forego other animal life, or that as I cut off a piece for their nourishment, it might be replaced by another.

Would that it were lawful to eat an elephant, so that one animal might avail for many.

Were it not for the thought of the difficulty of sustenance, I would probibit men from eating meat. The reason why I do not altogether aban-

of the Editor, corrupt. It is certainly unintelligible. 8 This is a conceit on the well-known

pantheism he impradently gave utter- ance to the feeling that he was God (4na ’l Hakk), and was executed at Bagh-

dad, in the reign of Al-Muktadir

1 Thie sentence is omitted by three MSS., and the note marks a variant in another. My interpretation is con+ jectural, the text being in the opinion

eastern duty of protecting a guest who has eaten of one’s salt. This protection does not extend to the offer of water, but the use of nitre gives water this salt and its consequent rights.

THE SAYINGS OF HIS MAJESTY.

| ite myself is, that many: others might willingly forego it likewise and be thus cast into despondency. :

From my earliest years, whenever I ordered animal fuod to be cooked: for me, I found it rather tasieless and cared little for it. I took this’ feeling to indicate a necessity for protecting animals, and I refrained from

• animal food. :

Men should annually refrain from eating meat on the anniversary of the month of my accession as a thanksgiving to the Almighty, in order that the year tay pass in prosperity.

Butchers, fishermen and the like who have no other occupation but taking life, should ‘have a separate quarter and their association with others should be prohibited by fine.

A merchant was ‘approaching his end and his four sons were about to quarrel over his property. He directed them with due counsel, and told them that he had providently bequeathed them equal portions and had left these, one for each, in the four corners of his house, and that when he died they were to take their several shares. When his instructions were carried out, one found gold, another grain, and the other two paper and a bone respectively. Not comprehending this they began to make a dis- turbance. The King of Hindustan, Salivahana, thus interpreted it: “By the bone is meant that cattle should be demanded (hy its holder) of the first, and by the paper, a money credit of the second.” When the whole was computed, the shares were thus found to be equal.

Hasan Sabbah! was once on journey by sea with a numerous company, Suddenly a storm arose, and consternation seized the people. He himself was cheerful, and when questioned thereon, he aunounced to them that they would be saved. On reaching land all of them were assured that the future was revealed to him. In point of fact he was undisturbed through his assurance that the will of God could not be altered, and his announcement of the good tidings of their security was caused by this reflection, that if they were drowned no one could save them; had they

thought otherwise they would have taken to (vain) supplication.

1 This was the famous chief of the Kirmisin. The name I’rak ig commonly

Persinn lemailians and known in the given to this tract by the Persians, bat history of the Crasades ander the name

of the ‘ Old man of the Mountain ‘,—for

improperly according ‘to Yakat, and is quite a modern term unknown to ancient

euch was the interpretation put by the geographers. He however allows that Latin historians on the title Shaykh a’l it is of common usage; the word is also Jibaél, properly signifying Lord of the written Jabal. The history of Hasan Mountains, by which is meant, the Sabbéh is well-known, He- ended his mountuinons dist:ict from Isfahan to reign and’life in A. H. $78, (A. D. 1124).

Zanjéu, Kazwin, Hamadan, Dinawar and nang

THE SAYINGS OF HIS MAJESTY.

(P. 242.) Ali,! called also Kharwa, used to say that he had se person in Balid? whose upper part consisted of two bodies, each possessing a head, eyes, and hands, with but a single body below. The man was married, and a jeweller by profession.

In the year that Bayram Khén received permission to depart for Hijaz,? o hunting leopard killed a doe near Sikandrah ; a live young one was taken from its stomach. I separated the flesh from the bone myself and gave the leopard its fill. In doing so something pricked my hand. I thought it was a piece of a bone. When carefully examined, an arrow-head was found in its liver. The doe must have been bit by an arrow when young, but by God’s protection it had touched no vital part, and did not. hinder the animal from waxing strong and becoming pregnant.

A mouse will take an egg in its paws and lie on its back, while the others seize him by the tail and drag him into his hole. It will also give a twist to its tail while inserting it into a bottle and draw out opium or whatever else may be inside. There are many such instances of their ingenuity.

If a woif opens its mouth impelled by desire to seize its prey, it can do so, At other times it cannot open it however much it may wish. When captured it utters no sound.

The difference betweon mineral and vegetable matter® lies in this, that the former is not soluble in water and the latter dissolves.

Once in a game preserve, a tame deer had a fight with a wild one. The latter was cleverly caught. Some of the spectators quoted the following line : ‘“ We have never seen any one who could overtake a deer by running.” The point was thus explained, that ahi ‘a deer” in Persian, means also “a, defect,” and this is not (required to be) secured by pursuit and effort.

The marriage of a young child is displeasing to the Almighty, for the object which is intended is still remote, and there is proximate harm. Ina religion which forbids the re-marriage of the widow, the hardship is grave.

Marriage between those who are not related is commendable in order that heterogeneity may become kinship, and between relations, the more remote the affinity the closer is the concord; and what has been recorded of the time of Adam, viz., that as sons and daughters were born to each, the son of one was given to the daughter of another, sustains this view.

1 Var. Bhduré Khérd, 5 [hazard this interpretation of Siw

7 Ware Malibee, Gallas. 3 Si which the editor hig marked with A. H. 968 (1560-1). See Vol. I, a note of interrogation There are several p. 817. The spelling of the name as variants in the notes which are of no Bayram is more common than Bayram. value. 4 The truth of the statement is not within my experience.

Bly

THE SAYINGS OF HIS MAJESTY.

| hw to the kinship between cousins being within the permitted degrees under the Muhammadan law, this was established in the beginning and was analogous to (the custom in) the time of Adam’s birth.!

To seek more than one one wife is to work one’s own undoing. In case she were barren or tor bore no. no son, it might then be expedient (p. 243).

Had I been wise earlier, I would have taken no woman from my own kingdom into my seraglio, for my subjects are to me in the place of children. :

The women of Hindustan rate their dear lives at a slender price,

It is an ancient custom in Hindustan fora woman to burn herself however unwilling she may be, on her husband’s death and to give her priceless life with a cheerful countenance conceiving it to be a means of her husband’s salvation. ; ;

It is a strange commentary on the magnanimity of men that they should seek their deliverance through the self-sacrifice of their wives, :

A monarch is a pre-eminent cause of good. Upon his conduct depends the efficiency of any course of action. His gratitude to his Lord, therefore, should be shown in just government and due recognition of merit; that of his people, in obedience and praise.

The very sight of kings has been held to bea part of divine worship. They have been styled conventionally the shadow. of Ged, and indeed to behold them is a means of calling to mind the Creator, and suggests the protection of the Almighty.

Sovereignty is a supreme blessing, for its advantages extend to mul- titudes, and the good works of such as have attained to true liberty of spirit also profit these.

A monarch should not himself undertake duties that may be performed by his subjects. The errors of others it is his part to remedy, but his own lapses who may correct ?

Sovereignty consists in distinguishing degrees of circumstance and in meting out reward and punishment in proportion thereto.

This quality of appreciation adds dignity to the pursuit of happiness and is the chief source of success.

What is said of monarchs, that their coming brings security and peace, has the stamp of truth. When minerals and vegetables have their pecu- liar virtues, what, wonder if the actions of a specially chosen man should operate for the security of his fellows.

(P. 244.) In the reciprocity of rale and obedience, the sanctions of hope and fear are necessary to the well-ordering of temporal government

1 J omit funx of the royal opinions which may be consulted in the origival,

THE SAYINGS OF HIS MAJESTY. 399

and the illumination of the interior recesses of the spirit; nevertheless a masterful will, never suffering the loss of self control under the domi-* nance of passion, should weigh well and wisely the measure and occasion of each.

Whoever walks in the way of fear and hope, his temporal and spiritual affairs will prosper. Neglect of them will result in misfortune.

Idleness isthe root of evils. The duty of one who seeketh his own welfare is to learn a profession and practise it. It is imperative in prefects never to be remiss in watchfulness,

’ he anger of a monarch like his bounty, is the source of national prosperity. :

Tyranny is unlawful in everyone, especially ia a sovereign who is | the guardian of the world. st

Divine worship in monarchs consists in their justice and good admin- istration: the adoration of the elect is expressed in their mortification of body and spirit. ‘All strife is ‘caused by this, that men neglecting the necessities of their state, occupy themselves with extraneous concerns.

A king should abstain from four things: excessive devotion to hunt- ing; incessant play ; inebriety night and day; and constant intercourse with women, 7 cleus :

Although hunting: suggests analogies of state policy, nevertheless the first consideration is to be sparing in the destruction of life.

Falsehood is iinproper in all men, and most unseemly in monarchs. | This order is termed the shadow of God, and a shadow should throw straight.

Prefects should be watchful to see that no one from covetousness trans- gresses! the limits of his own business.

Shah Tahmasp, king of Persia, one night forgot a verse. His torch- bearer quoted it. He punished the speaker somewhat, and said, “ When a menial takes to learning he does so at the expense of his duties.”

A king should not be familiar in-mirth and amusement with his courtiers.

A monarch should be ever intent on conquest, otherwise his neighbours | rise in arms against him.

The army should be exercised in warfare, lest from waut of train‘ng they become self-indulgent.

Aking should make a distinction in his watch over the goods, the lives, the honour and the religion of his subjects. If those who are led

1 Or it may be rendered, though not “ abandons his own profession.” with strict grammatical propricty,

400 . CONCLUSION.

away by greed and passion will not be reclaimed by admonition, they must be chastised.

He who does not speak of monarchs for their virtues will assuredly fall to reproof or scandal in their regard.

The words of kings resemble pearls. They are tot fit pendants to every ear. ;

CONCLUSION.

Praise be to God that this royal treasure of record, this register of knowledge, the syllabus of the volume of wisdom, the summary of adminis. trative writings, the tablet of instruction in the school of learning, the exemplar of ceremonial among men of understanding, the code of polity of the imperial court, this patent .of morality in the audience-ball of justice and mercy, has been brought to completion, Much labour had to be endured and many difficulties overcome before the inception of this antidote for the world’s ‘constitution, this prophylactic for those envenomed by sen- suality and suffering could be successfully undertaken. Many a dark night passed into morning and many a long day grew to eve, ere this mine of the diadem of eternal happiness, this pearl of the throne of everlasting sovereignty could be publicly displayed. What warring of the capacity with the natural constitution took place, how many a struggle between myself and my heart drove me to distraction ere the count of this investiga- tion fleeting as the world, the result of this search deluding as the waters of a mirage, could be set down! Prayers were poured forth before the Almighty throne, supplications were offered up on the threshold of divine light, in order that this amulet on the arm of the wise, this magic spell of thosé who love knowledge, written in my heart’s blood, might have the spirit of life breathed into its lettered form.

What toil endured through love that work so planned, Watered by tears and blood, should rooted stand!

Alas! Alas! that one nurtured by the divine bounty and long suffused by the radiance of truth, should defile his tongue with murmurs of toil and labour, and record his harrowing of soul and his travail on the tablet of illustration ! It is through the wondrous workings of His Majesty’s favour and the spell of his enduring prerogative that this dissertation has been set forth and a great work brought to its conclusion. That cynosure of divine unity to the virtuous, by the efficacy of a direct intention and the probity of unswerving rectitude appointed a treasurer to the stores of his wisdom and sagacity, and gave him access to the recesses of his sanctuary. That gem of singlemindedness, in honour of the Supreme Being and in thanksgiving

CONOLUSION. 401

for ever increasing bounties, brought forth a work of knowledge by a. master-spirit of wisdom for the profit of inquirers, and a royal mandate ‘from the tabernacle of sanctity for the seekers of happiness. By a sublime favour he endowed this fortunate and loyal nature with the capacity of reading and understanding it, and by his all-embracing condescension permitted me to reproduce somewhat thereof as came within my limited intelligence and to be honoured with the stewardship of the divine bounty. Far and near, friend and stranger, participate therein, and all classes of mankind illumine their minds with the splendour of trath. Thanks be to God that in these noble maxims of conduct, the visible world finds its remedy, and the things of the invisible are by them harmoniously regulated !

The light that o’er seven spheres celestial plays, Wins all its radiance from imperial rays.

The blind need now no more a staff to take, While those that see find luminous their ways.

The garden of prosperity blooms unto good-will and for joy has come a day of festival. The eye opens in cheerfulness and the niglit of sorrow has passed. Many a truth in the orders of nature and grace, and many incidents of binding and loosirg have been set down in despite of fraudful conccalers of the truth, and an illumination of wisdom is displayed for the guidance of the sightless and faint of heart and for the purblind that lose their way. Through a lofty destiny for which sincere loyalty is another name, & new canopy of wisdom has been erected, and the duty of thanksgiving which is the final cause, has reached its accomplishment.

In honour of my liege, the king, With all true loyalty I bring A cypress set in garden fair, Wherein shall trysting all repair,

_ And with full draughts of wine elate, Its happy growth commemorate.

Notwithstanding the coming and going of so many leaders of the caravans of knowledge and the gathering together of treatises from the schools of learning, to-day only can the purity of the jewel of wisdom be assayed and its weight tested by another scale—now only is sovereign intel- lect arrayed on the throne of empire and its sway enforced by a later ordi- nance. Now must the field_of gift and offering be made wide and the festal’ melodies and pans of success resound, but not as Firdausi, who in ® grovelling spirit, fell into the aberration of greed and made the curtain of his honour an object for the haggling of traffic. He was a seller of

ry

402 CONCLUSION.

• words and knew not their value. Thinking them interchangeable with a few pieces of metal, like shameless hucksters of the market, he lost his credit in stickling for price. He sought to make rateable worth incalen-— lable, and the measurable measureless. J’his servitor at the table of multi- tudinous royal bounties records in this work his gratitude for transcen- dent favours, and sigualizes the wondrous dispensations of the world- adorning Creator of the universe.

• Had naught but gold this volume from me wrung, Life would have ended ere a pearl were strung; *T was love that planned the task, for through such strain Could only love my feeble voice sustain.

Firdausi took thirty years of labour to secure eternal execration, while I have borne with seven years of toil for the sake of everlasting glory. He fused his worth into the cast of verse which is a matrix of determinate shape, and I have strung into writing, gems of the purest water through the infinite expanse of prose.

My pen its point deep in my heart’s blood dyes To write such prose as far all verse outvies ; For prose in its degree doth verse excel,

As unbored pearls the rarest price compel.

What connection is there between the servitor of the Lord and the worshippet of gold? between thanksgiving and lamentation ? Self interest let falla veil before his clear vision in that he sought largesse in the laboratory of genius from the great ones of the earth. Had no defect obscured his sight in his dealings with others, he would not have entered so devious a path nor spoken a line for lucre, and would have secured the possession of the jewel of magnanimity.

When thought of self intrudes doth genius flee, And the heart blinds the eyes that may not see. The beam in his own vision what though plain, The critic quick to cavil seeks in vain ; Absorbed in greed the faults of others hears, But from his own withholds unwilling cars.

But apart from this consideration that in the markets of wisdom, works that delight the heart cannot be purchnsed -by the gold and silver of the world,! and that such gems of price are not to be weighed against coin, by

b 1 omit the isdfat after Sy and placo ee in construction with it.

CONCLUSION. 403

his grace of diction and the charm of his verse he strove to immor- talize his name, and has left behind him a noble and gracious scion in the full vigour of youth that will survive to ages. To the rich and pros- perous it adds another dignity : the wise that love trath it favours with another aid. The simple-minded that seek after happiness are familiarized with the gains and losses of life, and it pours out for the many who resent the disappointments of toil, the healing balm of resignation. To the faint of heart it lends courage: to those who have the craft of the fox it gives the bolduess of the lion and the fury of the alligator. Upon the intoler- ant and narrow-minded it bestows cheerfulness and large views, and stimulates the magnanimous and raises them to the pinnacle of greatness.

Although to outward appearance he was but rendering a service to the great ones of the earth, he ewas implicitly bearing the jewels of his

• wisdom tothe market of appreciation, Had he not been under the influ- ence of cupidity, nor exposed his penetrating genius to the spoil of mis- placed desire, he could never have been sufficiently grateful for the divine favour in the opportanity of winning the applause and admira- tion of mankind. Nay, had he possessed any sense of justice and avy knowledge of the world, besides this rare product of intellect, he would have carried some substantial offering to the throne of majesty, in order that the royal approval might be the means of displaying the quality of his jewel, and that he might bequenth as a gift of price, a memorial to his successors in the pursuit of intellectual fame.

Praise be to God ! that by the divine grace and providential assistance, I have not set my heart upon the composition of this work with a view to ap- probation or to listen to my own praises, into which pitfall of the imagination so many have sunk, nor suffered my natural constitution to be trodden under foot by ambition, not even with regard! to the large field of its ac- quired characteristics, far less its innate qualities in any abundance.

.-He who is deficient in a lofty spirit and noble sentiments is ensnared by a desire of worldly goods. But even the stranger knows that the odour of misrepresentation has not entered my nostrils, and the alien recognises in me a critical judge. What analogy is there between the painted silks of China and the raw yarn of a hair-rope maker ? between a keen blade of Egypt and a piece of coarse iron? How can the priceless gem of truth descend to the level of worldly potsherds ? Why

1 I should alter the punctuation of the nature of individual man, the latter the text and place the stop after 9f <%asb. super-induced accidents of temperament The difference between »jhs and weub which are more under hie control.

is that the former signifies the essential

3

404 CONCLUSION.

exchange eternal bliss for the silvered inanities that soon decay ? And especially at this time when by the wondrous workings of destiny and a smiling fortune, priceless jewels are but as gravel before the palace of auspiciousness, and my loyal spirit, illumined by the rays of wisdom, has found rest on the heights of joy. Were I even destitute of the goods that pass from band to hand in the market-square of the material world, and fortune through malice or fickleness, sent not wealth to serve me, I would never entertain such a feeling nor approve in my own person such impru- dence in affairs. On the contrary, my first thought is the praise of God, in that the deeds of majesty have been illustrated by commendable descrip- tion. The second consideration of the mind with oa view to human needs is that the eminent men of future time and the learned of the present, may bring ap gems of purest ray from this fathomless sen to beautify the mansions of their deeds. Had I possessed a lofty spirit, 1 should not have descended from the summit of the heights of unity tothe level of polytheism, but what is to be done?! I quote the words used by the leader of the enlightened minds of the past, the spiritual doctor (Maulana Rimi)—

Since I am linked with those who see awry, Tdolater! I, too, must preach idolatry.

Though every one cannot comprehend the object of this fast in the morning of existence and this mirage in the noon of life, I think that all should perceive and bear in mind, that the exertions of the wise and the good should be restricted to two objects, and the supreme purpose of pursuit in these of lofty penetration and wakeful destiny should not exceed these. The first is to secure the benediction of God and to lay the foundations of a stutely fabric in the pleasant meads of His holy plea- sare, and this is the means to eternal life and the ornature of enduring bliss. Those who choose that country for their abode go not down unto death, and the sound of body therein behold not the face of sickness. Its vigorous dwellers know not of debility, nor those that thrive there, of decay. Wealth does not decline in poverty, and loss of vision enters not therein. This is to be obtained only by a sincere intention and the possession of the four excellent qnalities toyether with the avoidance of

1 This language, considering the dedi- Cation of the volume and the eye under which it was written, cannot be taken as an expression of regret at his accre- dited apostasy from Islam and conver- sion to Hinduism, but to imply the

necessity of following the language of conventionality though pledged to the support of his master’s creed. Never- theless his sincerity in his adhesion to Akbar’s faith was suspected. See Vol. I, Biography xvii.

CONCLUSION. 405

the eight vicious characteristics of which books of wisdom have fully treated. The second is a good repute in this fleeting world, which signifies an enduring existence and a second life. Although this also is accomplished through the same source of enlightenment by which a virtuous disposi- tion is formed, yet it is chiefly secured by a smooth tongue and an open hand, and sincerity of intention and rectitude of mind are not impera- tive. Blest is he who by the divine auspices links the first with the second, and prospers in the temporal as well as in the spiritual world. The means adopted by the seekers of truth to participate in social enjoyments and yet to win peace with some comfort to their consciences, are these, that with strenuous endeavour and by the favour of fortune, they separate good resolutions and virtuous conduct from the disorders of self-regard and the labyrinth ofshypocrisy, and submitting their minds to the dictates of sovereign reason and the divine pleasure, live apart from the blame and praise of mankind; and the profit which these simple dealers obtain from their inestimable lives and the advantage secured by their . exertions, are a perpetual remembrance and an illustrious name.

The eleaders in the four quarters of the visible and invisible worlds, and the deep thinkers that betake themselves both to occupation and retire- ment, who through their comprehensive views and wide survey of the field of knowledge penetrate the mysteries of these two sublime principles, sustain by the grace of God the weight of the two worlds on the shoulders of their capacity, and in the strength of the Almighty arm more lightly under the burden. The harmonious operation of these two opposite interests, one aloue of which is rarely attainable under the most capable and states- manlike administrators even under the sanction of penal law, is by them so successfully carried out under the guidance of celestial favour that the pri- mordial intelligence of nature itself stands amazed aud the wonder-working heavens are confounded. By them, moreover, the sources of advantage and detriment, both temporal and spiritual, are commanded, and these antago- nistic dual elements simultaneously co-operate in the establishment of festal conviviality of intercourse. And forexemplar of sucha one, lo! from the brow of this prosperous reign that irradiates the face of the State, what splendour is reflected and as a glory shines upon the raiser of its auspicious banner in this our happy age! For to-day the skies revolve at his wil] and the planets in their courses move by his sublimity.

Akbar, the king, illumines India’s night, And is as a lamp in the court of the House of Timour.

The heart exults at’his mention and the tongue vaunts his praise, May the Almighty vouchsafe long life to this incomparnble wonder

52 a)

406 CONCLUSION.

of the kingdom of wisdom, and eternal happiness to his subjects. This sovereign of the orders of nature and grace, by the light of his God-given intelligence and the night-beacon of his powerful will has so organized the measureless limits of these two dominions and moves through them with such prudence and sagacity, that aspiring discerners of each form of progress look to no other than him, and each and all consider as their own this pearl of wisdom that enlightens the world. Since the time that eloquence and knowledge of affairs have existed and the highway of literary composition been frequented, so exquisite and exact a co-operation of two antagonistic principles in a single hallowed person has never been recorded—a person who is the meeting of the oceans of church and state, the fountainhead of temporal and spiritual order—who preparcs the litters of travel while yet abiding in his native land!—a lamp for those who gather in privacy, a solver of trammels to those who are in bonds, a balm for the open wounds of the broken- hearted. Manifold worldly cares raise no dust of defect in his heart that loves retirement, and perpetual prayer and a concentrated mind suffer no breeze of pre-occupation to play upon the necessary duties of his station. Thus he has outward obligation with liberty of spirit. .

Lo! from his brow behold the pure of sight

God’s love and knowledge beam with radiant light. A crowned monarch—a throne’s rightful heir— Lord of the world—the kingdom’s founder there !

It is imperative upon the ambition of all masters of cloquence to decorate the ears and throat of the age with a description of the virtues of such a choice specimen of the court of existence and to adorn with its beauty the bosom and skirt of Time. A rare treaszre will thus be pre- pared for future travellers in the caravans of being, and seekers from afar will come into the possession of knowledge. Although the spheres themselves in their courses by gesture and speech, tell thereof and transmit it to succeeding generations, yet by the workings of destiny accidents befal and the thread of continuity is often severed. When, however, works are written to record these wondrous deeds and they are inscribed upon the tablets of time, the hand of vicissitude less frequently affects them and they endure to distant ages. A fabric that is laid upon virtue, the summit of the porches thereof reaches to the pinnacles of the seventh heaven, and a foundation whereon fortune builds is not sapped by revolving cycles.

a 1 That is, preparing for the world to the salvation of othe:s, come while yet in this, or facilitating

CONCLUSION. 407

P Behold the recompense of noble toil That guards the Cesars’ halls from Time’s despoil !

It is evident that of mighty monarchs of old there is no memorial except in the works of the historians of their age, and no trace of them but in the chronicles of eloquent and judicious annalists, yet the ravages of time obliterate them not. Of the splendour of the House of Buwayh no record exists save in the labours of the pens of Sabi! and Muhallabi, and the noble pages of Ridaki, U’nsari and U’tbi alone tell of the glories of

the kings of Ghazni.

Mahmid hath many a palace raised on high, That with the moon might well dispute the sky: Yet of all these no g2one doth now remain, While Time doth roll o’er U’ngari in vain.

1 Abi Ishtk lbréhim-b-Hilél, as-Sabi or the Sabean, author of some celebrated Epistles, was clerk of the Baghdad Chancery office in which he acted as secretary to the Caliph al-Mut{ Villéh and to I’zzu’d Daulah Bakhtyar of the family of Buwayh the Daylamite. He was born about A. H. 320 (A.D. 932), and died in 384 (A. D. 994.) He remain- ed a strict Sabean and would not change his religion notwithstanding tho solicita- tions of I’zzu’d Daulah. He wrote a his- tory of the Bawayh dynasty under the title of Toju’l Ailal or Tajwt Daylamtyah. See Ibn Khall and D’Herbelot. The latter precedes the notice of this per- sonage with an account of the Sabean doctrines.

Al-Muhallabif was descended from Ibn Abi Sufra al-Azdi and was appointed Wazir by Mo’izza’d Daulah Ibn Buwayh in A. H. $39 (A. D. 950). Ibn Khallakén gays that his powerful influence and firm administration, as well as his ac- quaintance with literature, made him celebrated. He was born in A. H. 291 (A. D. 903) and died in A. H. 852 (963), and was baried at Baghdad. A few of his verses are given by his biographer, but there is no mention of any work of

his composition. It is more probable that S&bi and Muhallabi would never have been heard of but for the House of Buwayh whose history is involved in, and survives with the annals of the Arabian Caliphate of which they wore at one time masters. Their dominion extended over I’rak, Persia, Kbiuzistin, Ahwéz, Tabaristan, Gurjdn aud Mazen- deran under seventeen princes, and final- ly passed into the hands of the dynasty of Seljuk.

Ridaki flourished in the reign of Awir Nasr, son of Ahmad of the Sama- nide dynasty, and was extraordinarily favoured by that prince. He turned the Arabictranslation of Pilpay’s ‘Fables’ into Persian verse in A. H. $13 (A. D. 925), and was the first who wrote a Diwin or collection of odes in Persian. He died in A. H. 343 (A. D. 954). Beale. U’nsari lived in the court of Mahmad of Ghazni and wrote an heroic poom on the deeds of Sultan Mabmid. He was also the author of a Diwdn. He ranked not only ag one of the first poets in that celobrat- ed court, but was versed in al] the learn. ing of that age. His death is placed variously in A. H. 1040 and 1049. For U’tbi see Vol. II. p. 84n. 7,

408 OONCLUSION!

Whosoever comprehends this talisman of prudence, this spel] of enlightenéd research, and appreciates these characters of thought and this lawful sorcery, will perceive this much, that my intention is to apprize far and near of these two attributes of high sovereignty and to lay the stable foundations of an enduring dominion. By this means the writer will secure a determinate sustenance from these divine treasures and a large provision from the table of manifold graces.

This lasting work I consecrate to Fame,

And to all time commemorate his name;. Above its page its syllables enrolled

Shall turn the pen that writes them into gold,

But if through the strange effects of self-interest such fact is unper- ceived and this pious intention is hidden from his view, at least this measure of knowledge will be secared and the collyrium of vision in this sufficiency will be prepared, that the design of the mind that employs the pen and the object of this benevolent purpose is the happiness of the people at large and the prosperity of the commonwealth. The primary purpose of these annals of wisdom is the distinguishing of right from wrong, for the feet of many have been worn in the search of this recognition and have effected nothing; and secondly, to appreciate the results of virtuous and vi- cious conduct, of which this work is full. From the one he will learn how to garnish and sweep his house, from the other, to order the ways of his life. When he meets with prosperity and joy, finding no trace of those that have passed away, he will not admit the inroads of presumption; and if sorrow oppress him when among such as have gone before, no exemplars thereof remaia, he will not surrender himself to its sway, but among the accidents of life, seated upon the prayer-carpet of enlightenment, he will be assi- duous in praise and supplication before the Supreme Giver, and from the impotence and helplessness of the strong that are no more, he will perfectly comprehend the power of the Omnipotent hand. Dumb as I am and dejected of heart, what are these vain imaginings and this apparatus of chronicle and pen-craft! What connection is there between enemies of the flesh who love retirement, and the showy and affected scribblers of the world P And what analogy between those who abate the price of their own wares and the displayers of adulterated goods P

My thoughts do modestly my works decry! While Gebirs, Moslems hawking run, “ who’ll buy ?”

1 The reader of the preceding pages will scarcely be of this opinion.

CONCLUSION. 409

How shall I write of the strange ways of fortune and the delusive work- ings of destiny ? In the beginnings of knowledge, I was overwhelmed with sorrow at the thought of existence, and at sacred places and auspicious times I prayed for release from the flesh. But, unawares, my spirit drew me by degrees to the school of research, and in confusion of heart which leads men astray, I sought the world. The ordinary course of learning was opened before me, and my mind became stored with ample measure of knowledge which raised in me an extraordinary arrogance. Under the guidance of a happy fortune, from a perusal of the works of the ancients, my mind was convinced that men must necessarily ba comprised under three classes. The first is characterized by evil disposition and condnet, and this is evidenced in the traducing of one’s neighbour and disclosing his faults. The second by good intentioas and virtuous purposes; and the possess- or of these they describe as half aman. ‘From amiableness in his judg- ments and a large tolerance of views, he speaks charitably of ail men. The third by a lofty spirit and eminent virtue; and these reveal the perfect man. The master of these qualities from transcendent elevation of mind, regards not mankind at all, and, therefore, much less virtue and vice in the abstract. Objective ideas find no entrance into his mind. , His contem- plation ever traverses the field of his own heart, and discovering his own defects, he labours to remedy them, and finally he adorns the sanctuary of his soul with the true principles of virtue in the hope of attaining by their means to the gonl of deliverance in the fruition of eternal bliss! When I read these seductive and winning numbers on the dice-tables of wisdom, I woke somewhat from my slumber and began to inquire. Withdrawing from worldly concerns, I fell to a critical introspection and began to transcribe the roll of my sins, When I had traversed a portion of this terrible road, veils in fold on fold were suspended before my vision. Ib seemed as though I could not advance a step, and save a few venial errors which I had committed in my youth, I believed myself innocent. As the very delusion of this mocking fancy awoke me to consciousness, I was not andone by my spiritual enemies. I was compelled to turn back and alighted at the first station of abstraction from being, and made the tran- Scription of the failings of my fellow creatures a mirrored reflection of my own. I thus became aware of many reprehensible qualities. In this ghostly

1 The influence of the Sanskrit Schools appearance at the debating union at of Philosophy is here very distinct. This Cambridge. passage breathes the spirit of the “The favourite comes with his tram- Vedanta. pets and drama,

8 These figures of speech may remind And his arms and his metaphors cruss-

the yeader of Praéd’s lines on Macanlay’s ed.”

410 CONCLUSION:

and spiritual warring and distress of mind and body, leaving the recess of seclusion, I came to the court of His Majesty and the star of my fortune rose on the horizon of desire. By his great condescension His Majesty resolved my doubts, and I surmounted the heights of the visible and invisible worlds. I was honoured with the guardianship of the treasure of truth and entrusted with the keys of familiar intercourse, as has been briefly adverted to at the close of the first and second books. My heart emptied itself forth, and a treatise on morals was composed. A new life arose in the framework of language. Fora long period the provision of bodily sustenance, the fur- nishing of which is approved in the truth-desiring eyes of sovereign reason, made my mind uneasy. What I had read in ancient works, occasioned only further bewilderment. One morning I craved for a scin- tillation from the court of the lord of light, and sought the exhibition of the talisman that resolved all difficulties. And as fortune befriended me and my heart was attentive, a refulgence from the luminary of grace shed its rays and the wondrous enigma was solved, and it was made clear that daily provision was under the pledge of royal justice and the acceptance of duty by grateful servants, as I have to some extent notified at the beginning of the last book.! Most strange of all, however much from time to time the desire for seclusion which was innate in me renewed its impulse, the thought of increased worldly advancement likewise gained strength. With this provision secured of appropriate sustenance and due supply of bodily vigour? on which the success of every undertaking depends, I withdrew from various other pre-occupations and turned my attention strenuously to military matters,8 and like those exclusively occupied in business, whom more solemn considerations do not affect, severing not the night from day, I sat at the gate of expectation, Since in this profession centres the inter- est of life and it adorns the acquisition of perfect and accurate judgment, in uniting tbe coruscation of political ability with the glitter of the sword, my whole ambition wasto perform some service and to dare some signal deed in honour of this chosen profession, which would astonish even experi- enced statesmen and amaze the perusers of the history of the ancients, in order that the duties I had undertaken might be adequately fulfilled. This desire every moment increased, but the inopportuneness of the season suf*

1 As a euphemistic, cireumlocartory and unconsciously humorous description of an applicatiom for salary, this passage is, perhaps, unequalled in any literature.

3 He required a large provision. His enormous appetite needed for its grati-

fication or surfeit twenty-two séra of solid food daily. See Vol. I. Biography, xxviii.

8 Both Abnl Fazl and his brother Faiz entered the military service, then the only profession. See Vol, I, Biography, xv.

ea

CONCLUSION. 41}

fered me not to speak. I had come from a religious house and a college to the royal court. Those who regard outward circumstances only might impute designs to me that had never crossed my mind, and I judged from appear- ances that if this secret intention got wind, they would blame me and. loosen the tongue of reproach. But since the luminous mind of majesty is a mirror of verities and a world-displaying cup,! without representation on my part or communication, the king vouchsafed to favour and honour with a commission my obscure personality that was unassisted by patronage, and raised me to an exalted rank and to the degree of a very distinguished com- mand’ For some days among the learned at their meetings considerable jealousy was excited, and the courtiers had for a long time banded together in envy against me. It was a strange co-incidence that I should be about the arsenal in search of a sword, white fate would force a pen into a master hand. I was examining the burnish of the lance-head while destiny was- sharpening the point of the reed in order that the ordinances of the sove- reign might be reverently proclaimed in the publication of these important records. Iwas a prey to conflicting emotions. Since I had not the capacity for this office, and my mind had no inclination to this kind of historiography, I was on the point of declaring my incompetence and stand- ing aside, withdrawing from so onerousa task. But asI was improssed with His Majesty’s knowledge of things that are hidden and with the obligation of responding to his favours by some signal service, I was unable to decline his command. The thought then occurred to me that His Majesty had in view my own application and industry as well as the literary capacity of my brethren,? so that the materials which I might with indefatigable assiduity collect together, that accomplished and eloquent writer* might harmoni- ously set in order and thus bring to completion this stupendous task. In a little while under the strenuous support of a will of miraculous efficacy, I opened my eyes to an interior illumination, and reflected that tle royal command was a magic inspiration to literary effort and a talisman for the illumining of wisdom. With a sincere mind and a lofty determination this complex of sorrow and joy set his face to the duty. My chief reliance was in this, that by the grace of the divine favour, having diligently

L The cup or mirror of Jamshid, as well command of two thousand five hundred

as of Solomon, Cyrus, and of Alexander which mirrored the universe, according to Oriental tradition. See p. 330.

8 He received in 1585, the command of a thousand horse. In 1592 he was promoted to be commander of two thou- Sand horse, and about 1595 to the

horse, and became one of the grandees of the empire. See Vol. I. xv, xviii, and xxi.

8 For the names of these see Vol. L., xxxiii.

4 Lis brother Fayzi.

412 CONCLUSION.

collected the necessary facts and given material embodiment to their spiri- tualized form, the eulogist of the court of the Caliphate, the erudite scholar of the Imperial House, the first writer of his age, the Jaureate among accomplished poets, Shaykh Abu’l Fayz-i-Fayzi my elder brother and superior, would graciously supervise it, and under the correction of that master of style, a fresh texture would be hand-woven into a fabric of beauty.

Scarce half of the first book had been written, when destiny worked its spell, and that free spirit in the fuluess of its knowledge, took its last journey and afflicted my heart with an exceeding grief. When, by the talisman of the royal sympathies, I was recalled from the desire of aimless wandering to the city of service, manifold kindnesses were as a balm to the open wound of my soul, and I applied myself zealously to my great task. A light dawned on me as to the object of the royal command and the aim of its lofty view. I brought my mind to that consideration and with a prayer to the Almighty, I set out on the road. On the one hand lay the painful feeling of incompetency and a heart overwhelmed with afflic- tion and stress of occupation which no material successes however numer- ous could remedy, and the ulcers of which no profusion of outward gratifications could salve,—on the other was the ebb and flow of the sea of my heart wherein human efforts were of no avail, nor could the door of its secret retirement be closed and the busy world kept out! How can I describe the violent conflict of these two unusual states of mind, or with what capability express the intercurrency of this strange dual operation. The first conjured up in the clear recesses of my mind, a fanci- ful play of wave and leap of fountain with swirl of rain and fall of dew; it wove a thousand fictions and suzgested frequent supernatural interven- tions and seemed to assure him who chose it, of the attainment of the trath and the honoar of presidency in the state-council of wisdom. From the second, a vision of flinty stones, of strewn fragments of brick and as of clod-heaps and scatterings of blackened soil appearing from the same source of discernment, arose with a warning aspect. Coarseness of speech, scurrility, vauntings and vain babble of which the characteristics are a moral decadence and a desire of associating with the base, time after time, in a novel guise came flaunting by. Accompanying this miserable condition and disorder of mind, the stress of. belplessness and isolation now and again received a fresh impulse. Although it is the way of the world seldom to form bonds of attachment, bat rather the more con- stantly to sever the ties of friendship, my plain speaking and discernment of hypocrisy co-operated with this worldly tendency. Some friends of Baber’s honsehold and intimates of long standing withdrew from association with me. With the burden of affairs on my shoulders and journeying over inequalities

CONCLUSION. 413

of ground and moving through perilous paths, how could Tin utter‘loneli- ness, reach half way on the road, or when arrive at my destination ? But by the advent to the gardens of blessedness of one or two godly friends who in this dearth of manhood were obtained by me, I triumphed over all my difficulties, :

Strangely enough, with all this apparatus that inspired fear and this struggle within and without, I did not withold my hand from writing nor did my resolution flag, nay rather, every moment fresh vigour was aroused in me and this momentous conflict grew stronger and the strife ofthe flesh and the spirit increased until the light of truth shone forth and my difficulties were solved, the wondrous effects of the holy spirit of Majesty were again evidenced in me, and my heart and vision were flooded with an extraordinary light. The writings of the wise of ancient times to some extent corroborated the accuracy of my own course and exculpated my sorry conscience with its ignoble tendencies. What the sages of old affirm is this, that the leader of the caravans of hallowed sovereignty is supreme over high and low, and that the pleasant mead of spiritual and temporal concerns blooms fair under the beneficent lustre of such unique wonder of the world of wisdom: moreover that the visible ruler who is the chosen among thousands of mankind to reduce to order the scattered elements of social organisation holds sway over all men, but his power extends only to their bodies and finds no access to their souls. The lords of spiritual dominion, on the other hand, have no authority save over pure consciences, as the practice of the saints in general and of ail holy men illustrates. The ordinary class of professors of Jearning and the shallow sciolists of the world influence solely the minds of the vulgar, and the effect of their instruction is to be found only in such waste ground. But as the monarch of our time has been appointed sovereign likewise over the invisible world, his sacred inspiration has wrought these extraordinary effects in me who am rude of speech, ignorant and helpless, and raised me from the deeps of ignorance to the heights of knowledge.

With joyful omens blest, my strain Shall celebrate his glorious reign ;

His praises shall my pen proclaim, Aud here eusbrine his royal name.

My first care was to collect by the aid of heaven, all the transactions of his enduring reign, and I used exceptional and unprecedented diligence in order to record the chief events of my own time. In many of these occurrences [ bore a personal share, and I had a perfect knowledge of the under-currents and secret intrigues of State, to say nothing of the ordinary drift of public

53,

414 CONCLUSION. Nn

affairs. And since the insinuations of rumour had prejudiced me and I was not sure of my own memory, I made various inquiries of the principal officers of Stute and of the grandees and other well-informed dignitaries ; and not content with numerous ora) statements, I asked permission to put them into writing, and for each event I took the written testimony of more than twenty intelligent and cautious persons. The flagrant contradictory state- ments of eye-witnesses had reached my ears and amazed me, and my difficulties increased. Here was date of an event not far distant—the actors in the scenes and transactions actually present—their directing spirit exalted on the throne of actual experience—and I with my eyes open obser- ving these manifold discrepancies. By the blessing of daily-increasing

• favour I determined to remedy this, and set my mind to work out o solution. The perplexity disentangled itself and my bewildered state of mind began to grow calm. By deep reflection and a careful scrutiny, taking up the principal points in which there was general agreement, my satisfaction increased, and where the narrators differed from each other I based my presentation of facts on a footing of discriminate investigation of exact and cautious statements, and this somewhat set my mind at ease. Where an event had equal weight of testimony on both sides, or anything reached me opposed to my own view of the question, I submitted it to His Majesty and freed myself from responsibility. By the blessing of the rising fortunes of the State and the sublimity of the royal wisdom, together with the perfect sincerity of the inquirer and his wakeful destiny, I was completely successful and arrived at the summit of my wishes.

When I had safely traversed these difficult defiles, a work of con- siderable magnitude was the result. But since at this formidable stage, in the arrangement of these events no minute regard to details had taken Place, and their chronological sequence bad not been satisfactorily adjusted, Icommenced the methodizing of my materials anew, and began to re- write the whole, and I took infinite pains especially bestowing much atten- tion on the chronology of the Divine Era, And since I had the assistance of the highest scientific experts, this task ulso was with facility completed and a separate table was drawn out. When through supernatural illumina- tion, the announcement of a new basis of computation entered the ear of intel- - ligence, that old and tattered garment was cast aside and a robe of honour newly woven of grace, was substituted, and by the power of the Being who created speech, this great work, with all the difficulties it presented, was brought to a conclusion, and numerous exprossions of satisfaction were felicitously evoked.

As this world of tribulation is not a home for the wise of heart, the more so that friends who live for the happiucss to come are covered by the

CONCLUSION. 415

veil of concealment and on account of the ingratitude of the incapable, have withdrawn their hearts from participation in the false shows of its delusive scene, I looked upon each of my days as though it were to be my last, and employed myself only in the preparations for my final journey. In this sor- rowful condition I hastened along my road, and the labours on the fulfiment of which I had counted were not ordered according to my desire. As by the decree of destiny my life was still prolonged, for the fourth timo T renewed the task and gave it all my solicitude. Although my first efforts were now directed to remove all superfluous repetitions, and give continuity to the easy flow of my exposition, I perceived the incomplete arrangement of my fresh materials, and the due ordering of this was undertaken. And since I was new to the road and stricken with grief and friendless, an exceeding depression of spirit came upon me, in that, with all my toil and with such excessive care these many lapses had occurred and such frequent errors had appeared. What would*be the result, and where would it all end? I began a fifth revision and went over the work from the beginning. Although all my acknowledged endeavours were directed to immortalize these events and to place their issues in due order, yet as sagacious writers consider that verse is as the savour of salt to prose, I took much pains in the introduction of a few stanzas which should be in harmonious accord with the composition, and many a correction and emendation was made, independent- ly of any consideration of the cavils of numberless critics. Tho truth is that men close their eyes in regard to their own faults and their own offspring. However much they may oppose the feeling, these defects are approved as merits, ._ I who have made it a practice to be critical of self and indulgent towards others, could employ no collyrium regarding this question, nor devise any remedy for this defect of vision, but on this five-fold revision a rumour of this new development spread abroad. Some of my acquaintances joined in supporting me; others were as unanimous in an underhand depreciation. I formed a resolution, for the sixth time, to set my mind free of its waverings of suggestions, and to exercise the most minute and fastidious criticism; but the frequent calls upon me made by His Majesty left me no time. ; I was compelled-therefore to present him with this fifth revision, and

Was rewarded with a perpetual satisfaction.

What-mine hath ever yielded gem so fair ?

What tongue-born treasure can with this compare ?

Beneath each letter is a world concealed, ;

Each word’s expanse shows worlds on worlds revealed.

Tis every pearl bedecks the earth and sky,

And if ye see it not—be yours the penalty.

v

416 .GONCLUSION.

It is my hope that by the blessings of a sincere intention and. its own. merits, the task which was set befove my ‘grateful heart may be happily’ concluded, and my mind be disburdened in some mensuve from the distness of its many anxieties. Within the space of seven years, by the aid of a resolute will and a lofty purpose; a compendious survey covering a period . fyom Adam down to ‘the sacved person of the prince regnant, has been concluded, and from the birth of His Imperial Majesty to this day, which is the 42nd of the Divine Bra,! and according to.the lunar computation. 1006, the ocenrrences of fifty-five years of that aursling of grace haye been felicitously recorded, and my mind has been Hghtened in some degree.of its stupendous burden. : . : :

The princely heart that virtue dowers, For him gems bloom instead of flowers, And hill and dale his kingdom round Shall with their monarch’s praise resound,

It is my expectation to write in four volumes? a record of the trans: actions of the royal house during oné hundied and twenty years, which ave four generations, that it may stand as a memorial for those who seek knowledge in justice, and with the Institutions of His Miajesty as the concluding hook, I purposed the completion of the Akbarnimah in these five volumes. By the aid of. the Almighty three have been written, and

many a secret of wisdom has been reveated and a treasure of truth weighed in the balance. ;

I bear from wisdom’s inmost store. The royal House this treasured tore, And pray ‘its justice and its grace May ne’er my memory efface.

And let this loyal offering be Accepted of its Majesty.

May God His favour grant benign, And His acceptance deign with thine, And raise its dignity on high

With thy name’s glorious currency, That it from thee may win renown And link my fortunes with the thvone.

ee comand

§ Tho epoch of the Divine Bra was Fri- 8 See Vol. I. Preface. day, tho Sth of Rabi’ I, AH. 968, (19th Febranry 1556.)

SOME ACCOUNTS OF THE ATIHOR. 417

Tf ‘destiny in its wondrous workings gives me leisure and capricious fortune, opportunity, the remaining two books shall be satisfactorily ter- minated and form a history of deeds replete with attraction. If not, let others, guided by grace and a propitious fate, set down, year by year, the events of this enduring reign, with a lofty resolution and -unremitting industry, in right understanding, with a noble purpose and in a spirit of freedém, rendering populous the habitations of Church and State and fertilizing the gardens of grace and nature with refreshing waters. Let them not forget this obscure wanderer in the desert of aberration and in their glad work acknowledge their obligations to me who first displayed the continuous succession of this series, and suggested to them the manner of its record. But if this be not approved aud they desire by recommencing ‘on anew method or fashion of language of the day to compile the trans- actions of this never-fading dominion,

y ‘Be it unto thy peoples’ welfare, Lord, Beneath the shadow of King Akbar’s sway.

REGARDING SOME ACCOUNTS OF THE AUTHOR,

The writer of this important work had it in his mind to draw up a memoir of his venerable ancestors and some particulars of strange inci- dents in his own life, and form of them a separate volume which should be a source of instruction to the intelligent who look afar; but various occu- pations, especially the composition of this work, absorbed his attention to the exclusion of allelse. At this juncture a secret inspiration prompted the thought that the world would not welcome the detailed journals of personal biography in an isolated form, and that it would be more opportune to append an account thereof to this work and to intersperse here and there some practical and didactic comments, Accepting this happy suggestion, I have thrown off this sketch and liberated my soul.

Since to vaunt of lineage is to traffic from empty-handedness with the bones of one’s ancestors and to bring the wares of ignorance to market, and is to be foolishly vain of the merits of others while blind to one’s own defects, I was unwilling to touch the subject or indulge in such idle vapouring. In this demon-haunted wilderness, to be linked by any chain deters advance and the irrigation of the genealogy of the outer world is of no profit to the interior spirit.

Be not, as fools, alone thy father’s son ;

Forget thy sire; choose merit for thine own.

What though should fire beget @ scion as bright, Smoke can be ne’er the progeny of light.

,

418 - SOME ACCOUNTS OF THE AUTHOR.

In ordinary parlance genealogy signifies seed, race, tribe and the like, and the term embraces the distinctions of high and low. Any rational man recognises that the one reverts to the other, inasmuch as among inter- mediaries in the line of descent some one individual has become distin- guished for material wealth or spiritual eminence, and thus become cele- brated by name or title or profession or place of birth; whereas the vulgar who, though accounting mankind to be the sons of Adam their primi- tive father, yet by attending to romantic fictions accept only these assump- tions, are evidently! led astray in this matter by the remoteness of the line and do not realize the actuality of that patriarch. Why then should any upright and discerning man be deluded by these fables and trusting to them, withdraw from the pursuit of truth? What availed the.son of Noah his father’s communion with the Almighty, and how did the idolatry of his race injure Abraham the friend of God ?

Jami! serve God through love, nor lineage heed, For such road knows no son of this or that.

Nevertheless through the decrees of fate I am linked to worldlings and associated with those who give priority to birth above worth. Thus I am compelled to alude to it, and to furnish a table for such as them.

The count of honourable ancestry is a long history. How may I retail their holy lives for the unworthy inquisitiveness of the moment? Some wore the garb of saints, some were immersed in secular studies, some were clothed in authority,? some engaged in commerce and others led lives of solitude and retirement. For a long period the land of Yemen was the home of these high born and virtuous men. Shaykh Musa,3 my fifth ancestor, in his early manhood, withdrew from association with his fellows. Abandoning his home he set out on travel, and accompanied only by his knowledge and his deeds he traversed the habitable globe with a step that profited by what he saw. Inthe ninth century by the decrees of heaven, he settled in quiet retirement at Rél, a pleasant village of Sewistan, and married into a family of God-fearing and pious people. Although he had come from the desert to a civilized town, he did not ex- change his retired habits for the occupations of the world. Ever contem- plative on his prayer-carpet of introspection, he wrestled in prayer with himself and spent his precious days in the orderivg of the wayward spirit.

1 The punctnation is faulty, and the mer word coupled with (4%) has no

atop after M09 stionld be omitted. taet 3 The text has “yee which I think Cf. Vol. I. Biography of Abul Faz].

must be an error for seyloy, The for-

SOME ACCOUNTS OF THE AUTHOR. 419

His virtuous sons and grandchildren following his example lived happily, and were instructed in the esoteric and exoteric doctrines of philosophy. In the beginning of the tenth century Shaykh Khizr set out impelled with the desire of visiting the saints of India and of seeing Hijiz and the people of his own tribe. Accompanied by a few of his relatives and friends he came to India. At the city of Nagor, Mir Sayyid Yahyé Bokhari of Uch, who was successor to Makhdim-i-Jahdniydn! and had a large portion of the spirit of sanctity, Shaykh Abdir Razzaik Kadiri of Baghdad (who was one of the distinguished descendants of that paragon among eminent saints, Sayyid Abdw’l Kadir Jili8 and Shaykh Ydsuf Sindi who had traversed the fields of secular and mystic lore and had acquired many perfections of the religious life, were engaged in the instruction and guidance of the people, and multitudes were profiting by their direction. In his zeal and affection for these emine\it teachers and under the attractive influence of the soil of this ancient country, that wandering exile there took up his abode. .

In the year A. H. 911 (A. D. 1505), Shaykh Mubérak (my father) came forth from the realm of conception into visible personality and was clothed in the mantle of existence. Through a miraculous efficacy of will, at the age of four he displayed the light of his intelligence and a daily-increasing illumination shone from his auspicious countenance. When nine years old he was already considerably well-informed, and at fourteen had run through the usual course of the studies and had by heart the text-books of every science. Although the grace of God guided the caravan of his wakeful fortune and he had received alms from the street of manya learned mystic, he principally attended Shaykh Atan through whose instruction he increased his interior thirst. This Shaykh was of Turk- ish extraction and lived to the age of one hundred and twenty. In the reign of Sikandar Lodi he had taken up his residence in that city and had attained to an eminent degree of knowledge under Shaykh Salar of Nagor who had studied in [ran and Turan,

Briefly to resume, Shaykh Khizr teturned to Sind, his whole object being to bring some of his relations back with him to this country. He died on his journey. Meanwhile a severe famine had befallen Nagor, and an epidemic plague added to the disaster. Except his mother, all other members of his family perished. A resolution to travel had always been uppermost in the enlightened mind of my venerable father, and the desire of seeing the eminent doctors of every land and of ‘soliciting their godly assistance was vehement within him; but that queen of virtue, bis lady

ie

1 See pages 372-4. | 4% Soo page 887.

420 SOME ACCOUNTS OF THE AUTHOR.

mother, suffered him not, and no thought of disobeying her entered Ing righteous mind. In this hesitancy of spirit, he came under Shaykh Fayyazi of Bokhéra—may God sanctify his soul :—and his agitation of mind increased. In his early days of study the peerless eyes of that discerning sage had fallen upon a certain servant of God with whom it was his daily fortune to receive interior enlightenment and (guidance to) eternal salvation. He solicited his direction in the choice of a settled course of life. He re- ceived the following answer: “ About this time a certain person will become an acknowledged master of instruction and will be established as a guide to those who seek knowledge; his name is U’baydu’llah and his distinguishing epithet Khwdjah-t-Atrér,! (master of the free of spirit): attend his lectures and follow the course he points out.”” The Khwajah at that time was footsore from -his long investigations and assiduously sought the great theriac of truth. In due time he attained this eminent rank and Fay yazi learnt from him how to seek God. His seclusion was direct- ed to bein absolute obscurity and his (spiritual) office was determined with- out formal delegation. Wherever the Khwajah in his allusions refers to “ the dervish,” he means this wonder of the world (Fayyazi).* For forty years he resided in Turkistan, and in deserts and mountains enjoyed the ecsiasy of solitude. He had attained the age of one hundred and twenty years and the fire of his soul was burning with undiminished intensity. One- night my father, in the city of my birth, was discussing the subject of religion with some godly and pious persons and many edifying matters had been brought forward, when suddenly. the sound of a sigh was heard and a flash of heavenly light shone. However much they attempted to account for this, they could find nothing. The next day after much inves- tigation and a diligent search, it was discovered that this mystic personage was in retirement in a potter’s house. My father now for a space reposed in the light of his direction and his own distracted mind ceased to wander. For four months consecutively he enjoyed this happiness and was daily tested by the alchemy of his glance. Within a short period, the time of the Shaykh’s departuré to heaven drew nigh, and with his mind filled with divine truths, he gave forth his counsels of guidance for those who were seeking revelation, and in ecstasy of spirit and with a serene mind he passed away. _

About this time that pattern of pnre womanhood who had given my father his earliest instruction, departed this fleeting life. The affair of

1 See Vol. I. Biog. p. ii. it is with great difficulty I have been % This passage is 0 obscure from the able tu disentangle and determine what

confusion and omission of pronouns that I conceive is its sense.

SOMB ACCUUNTS OF THE AUTHOR. 421

Maldeo,’ caused an interregnum ; my venerable father withdrew towards the seacoast with a view to greater seclusion. His sole purpose was to travel over the country and to derive some profit from intercourse with yarious classes of men. At Ahmadabad he fell in with distinguished doctors and further improved his knowledge, and received a high diploma for every important branch of learning. He acquired a various acquain- tance with the doctrines of Malik, of Shafiai, of Ab& Hantfah, of Hanbal, and of the Imémiyah® school, both in the principles of law and the law itself, and by strenuous application acquired the dignity of a mujtahid. Although traditionally from his ancestors he belonged to the theological school of Abi Hanifah yet he had always adorned his conduct with discretion, and avoiding a servile following of opinion, submitted only to demonstration and took upon himself the things which the flesh resisted. Thus by his greatness of soul and fortunate destiny he passed from the knowledge of the visible to the understanding of the invisible, and the pleasure-ground of the material world led the way to the kingdom of truth. He had read treatises on Sufism and transcendental theology, and had perused mauy works on con- templation and worship, especially the verities of Shaykh-b-Arabi, of Shaykh- b-Faridh and of Shaykh Sadru’ddin of Iconium. Many doctors of physics and ontology honoured him with their countenance, and many successes at- tended him and uncommon precepts of direction added tohisfame. Among tho chief divine graces vouchsafed to him was that he became a dis- ciple of the Khatib Abu’l Fazl Kazaran.8 This personage from his appre- ciation of merit and knowledgs of men, adopted him as a son and de- ligently instructed him in various knowledge, and made him commit to memory the subtleties of the Shifa,’ the Isharat, the Tazkirah and Ptolemy’s

1 See Biog. Vol. I. ii. Blochmann re- fersto this as “the Maldeo disturban- ces” withont farther comment. J think he misapprehends the sense. Abat Fazt must refer to the affsir subsequent to the final defoat of Hamayin by Shér Shah, near Kananj, in A. H. 947 (A. D. 1540). Hamay dn fled to Sind, and failing in his attempts there marched by way of Jesalmér to Négor and Ajmér then ruled by Maldeo the most powerful of Hinda Rajahs. This prince determin- ed to seize him and make him over to Shér Shéh. Warned in time Huméyin fled at midnight to Amarkot. The horrors of that Night are described by Forishta

54

and copied by Elphinstone. At Amar- kot in 1542, Akbar was born. Shér Sbah became now ruler of India till his death in 1545, ;

• 3 ¢., Shigh.

8 Kdzardo is in Persia, between the seacoast and Shiraz, culled, according to Yaékat, the Persian Damictta, from its manufactuce of linen cloths. From Damietta, as is well-known, the staff called dimity, takes its name.

4 The Shifd and Ishdrah are two works of Husayn-b-Abda’llah ; the former on logic according to Haji Khalifah, but Ibn i Khallakan states its aubject to he philosophy (4S), a term wide enoagh

422 SOME ACCOUNTS OF THE AUTHOR.

Almagest. Thus the garden of learning was refreshed with irrigation and the penetration of his vision was further increased. That learned man at the sinstance of the princes of Gujardt, had come from Shiraz to the country, and the groves of wisdom received a renewal of bloom. He had acquired learning under divers theologians of the time, but in the great branch of mystical contemplation he was the disciple of Maulané Jalé- lu’ddin Dawwaini.! That learned doctor had first received the leading principles of science from his own father, and subsequently, in Shiraz had attended as a pupil the lectures of Mauliné Muhyi’ddin Ashkbdr, or the Weeper, and Khwajah Hasan Shah Bakkal, these two theologians being. among the principal pupils of Sayyid Sharif Jurjéni. He for a time also frequented the school of Maulana Humimu’ddin Gulbéri who was proficient in drawing horoscopes and there lit the lamp of erudition, and through good fortune thus acquired a wonderful extent of know- ledge. He had also made a thorough study of philosophical works the principles of which he explained with much elegance, as his treatises on that subject evidence and commendably illustrate. In the same city of grace, my venerable father had the good fortune to attend upon Shaykh U’mar of Tattah, who was one of the greatest saints of the time, and that night-illumining jewel possessing the power of an exquisite discern- meat, inspired him transcendentally with elevation of soul and sublime knowledge. He also fell in with many doctors of the Shattari, Tayfari, Chishti and Suhrawardi orders, and profited by their instruction. In the city likewise, he made the acquaintance of Shaykh Yusuf, who was one of the most ecstatic and inspired of mystics, and through him was filled with new wisdom. He was ever absorbed in the ocean of the divine presence, and omitted no minute particular of ceremonial worship. From the holy influence by which he was surrounded, his desire was to erase altogether from the expanse of his mind the impressions of knowledge, and with-

in application among Orientals to in- clade medicine, and may signify science in general. The Ishdrat ?lai’lm ‘il Man- tik (indiciam ad scientiam logics), is on the same subject and by the same author commonly known as Ibn Sina or Avicenna, who died in 1036. Nasir- a’ddin Tési’s Commentary on it is still extant. Avicenna’s great work the “Canon of Medicine,’ ig well-known, and he is the reputed author of the division of substances from their che-

mical relations into salts and earth, inflammables and metals, which, accord- ing to Murray’s Chemist, has been the basis of chemical classification to the present time. There are many works under the title of Tazkirah. The re- ference is probably to the great work of the grammarian AbG Ali Hasan-b- Abmad al-Farisi, who died in A. H. 989 or 1581 A. D.

! Dawwén is a district in Persia cele- brated for its excellent wine, Yakut,

SOME ACCOUNTS OF THE AUTHOR. : 423

drawing entirely from the conventional obligations of intercourse, to become absorbed in the contemplation of the divine perfections. But that reader of the secrets of the heart’s recesses discovering his intention dissuaded him therefrom, and he courteously communicated to him that a ship was about to sail, and that he should visit Agra, and if his difficulties were not there overcome, he should proceed to Iran and Turan, end wherever the spirit led him ora call directed him, thither should he go and occupy himself with secular teaching.

Conformably to this direction in the first of the (Persian) month of the Urdibihisht (April), in the Jalali year! 465, corresponding to Saturday, the 6th of Muharram 950 A, H. (A. D. LOth April 1543), he happily alighted in that prosperous seat of gynpire which may God guard from all adversity! In that delightful residence he happened to become acquainted with Shaykh Aliu’ddin Majzib or the ecstatic, who could read the tablets of the heart and the secrets of the tomb. This saint, in one of his returns to consciousness from an ecstatic trance, informed him that it was God’s will that he should remain in that city and abandon further wanderings, and he announced to him good tidings and comforted his roving spirit. He took up his residence on the banks of the Jumna, in the vicinity of Mir Rafii’u’ddin Safawi of Yj.2 He here married into a Kuraysh family distinguished for wisdom. and virtue, and lived on terms of intimacy with its head, the chief of the quarter; and this upright personage, looking upon the arrival of that nursling of wisdom as a rare distinction, received him with warmth of affection and cordiality. Since he was a man of much wealth, he wished my father to share his mode of life; but by the guidance of for- tune aud grace, he did not consent, and preferring the threshold of reliance and an independent mind, he pursued a life of interior recollection combined with worldly pursuits. The Mir was one of the Hasani and Husayni Sayyids, Some account of his ancestors is given in the works of Shaykh

1 See Vol. HH. pp. 28-29. tho limits of the district or its position. 3 Blochmann has ‘‘Iuja (Shiréz),” bat One Dérébjird he places in the district Yakat gives no such name. The text of Istakhr adjacent therefore to Shiraz, ai distinctly e and Yakut locates Tj another in Nishapir which is more com-

formable to the stated remotencss of Tj, bat Abul Faz] intends the former, as he shows lower down. The present ruins of Dardébjird formed the ancient citadel of Pasargadae which contained the tomb of Oyrus.

(gel, the final demma being the Arabic nominative case-ending is not pronounced in Persinn) at the extremity of Persia cow’s ody (p05! 6,3 in the district of Dérabjird, and states that the Persians pronounce it “Eek.” He does not define

424 SOME ACCOUNTS OF THE AUTHOR.

Sakhawi. Although their birthplace was originally the village of Tj of Shirdz, yet for a long time past they preferred to live at Hijaz, and some members of the family have been continually settled in “both places where they have been the givers and recipients of benefit. Although he had studied philosophy and theology under the direction of his own parents, he never- theless, as a pupil of Maulana Jalilu’ddin Dawwani, reached a higher dis- tinction therein. In Arabia he studied the various branches of traditional lore uvuder Shaykh Sakhawi of Cairo in Egypt, who was a disciple of Shaykh Jbn-i-Hajr al-Askaléni,! and when he died in A. H. 954 (A. D. 1547), my father retired to his own seclusion. He continued his efforts in-the regeneration of his soul while attending to the perfect propriety of his exterior conduct, and was assiduous in his worship of God. He employed himself in teaching various sciences and made the expounding of the opinions of the ancients an occasion for withholding his own, and gave no tongue—that fatal member—to the expression of desire. Some fev prudent and virtuous persons of whose sincerity he was assured, he admitted to his society and appreciated their merits, but from the rest he held himself excused and avoided association with them. In a short time his house became the resort of the learned where high and low were honourably received. Among gatherings of friends, there were also con- claves of the envious, but these did not depress him, ‘nor those elate. Sher Khan, Salfm Khan and other grandees proposed for him a stipend from the State revenues and to settle on him a suitable freehold, but as he possessed a high spirit and lofty views he declined and thus raised his own reputation.

As he was gifted with an innate aptitude for the direction of men, and held a divine commission for the enunciation of truth, while at the same time he had the concurrence of the saints of bis time and the affection of his well-wishers daily increased, he undertook the guidance of those who frequented his lectures and sought eulightenment, and he denounced all evil habits. Self-interested worldlings took offence and entertained unseemly intentions. As he had no desire to oppose any hostile discussion and allowed no thought of acrimony or servility to enter his mind, he did not the less continue to speak the truth boldly and to reprove evil doers, and did not attempt to win over quarrelsome seceders. And this occa- sioned that the Almighty miraculously blessed him with true friends and spiritually-minded sons. Although he employed his hours in teaching

! Shihdbu’ddin Abu’l Fazl Abmad-b- bah (recta institutio de distinotione Ali-b Haje al Askaldnj, the well-known inter socios prophet). He died in authur of the Isibah fi tamyiz is-Sihé- A. H, 852 (A. D. 1448).

SOME ACCOUNTS OF TITE AUTITOR. 425

philosophy, during the time of the Afghans! he lectured little on theo- logy. When the lofty crescent-bearing standards of Humayin shed a new splendour over Hindustan, some students from Tran and Tirran attended the school of that knower of the mysteries of the spirit and of the world, and his lectures grew in repute, and the field of the thirsty in the drought- year of discernment overflowed with water, while timid travellers encamped in the pleasure-greund of repose, Affairs had now scarcely got into train’ when the evil-eye fell on them, and Hem4? now rose in the ascendant. The well-disposed withdrew into obscurity and retired in disappointment. My venerable father with a stout heart, continued firm in his own seclusion, and by the favour of God, Hemi,sent messengers with expressions of apology, aad through the interposition of a man of my father’s excellent character many were released from the oppression of anxiety and entered the meads of joy.

In the beginning of the year of the accession of His Majesty to the Imperial throne, as though wild rue® were set on fire upon the State with the view of arresting the evil-eye, a great famine occurred, which raised the dust of dispersion. The capital was devastated and nothing remained but a few houses. In addition to this and other immeasurable disasters, a plague became epidemical. This calamity and destruction of life extended

t Sher Khéo was the son of Ibrahim Khan, o native of Afghanistan who claimed descent from the Ghorian dy- nasty.

’ % Hemi was a shop-keeper whom Salim Shah had made Saperintendent of the markets, and who was raised by Muhammad Shah Addili to the highest honours and entrasted with the whole administration. He certainly proved his great capucity, for he suppressed the revolt of Sikandar Sdr in the Panjab, crashed Mahammad Sir in Bengal, captured Agra from the Maghal troops, and defeated Akbar’s general ‘Tardi Beg at Delhi. He was, however, eventa- ally beaten at Panipat by Bayram Khan onthe 5th November 1556, after a des- perate battle in which he fonght with the greatest bravery. He had been shot ip the eye by an arrow in his howdah, and though in great agony, he drew the arrow with the eye-ball out of its socket

and wrapt itin his handkerchief, and continued the fight to encourage his troops. He was taken prisoner and carried before Akbar. Bayriém recom: mended the king to slay him with his own hand and: fulfita meritorions act. Akbar lightly touched him with his sabre and became entitled to the honours of a Ghaizi—a slayer of infidels. The deed itself ho suffered Bayram to execute, who decapitated Hemé at a single blow. Sala- din, a trae Ghazi, would have spared so gallant a foe.

8 It is popularly supposed that a fumi- gation with wild rae and its seeds which aro set alight, arrest the malig- naut effects of the evil-eye. The term used is “the eye of perfection.” ‘The praise of any object in the possession of an Oriental is regarded as ominous by him and as bringing a nemesis with it, for all perfect thiugs decline after reach- ing their zenith.

426 « SOME ACCOUNTS OF THE AUTHOR.

throughont most of the cities of Hindustan. Still that enlightened sage remained in his seclusion and the dust of tepidity settled not in the serene chamber of his mind. The writer of this work was then five years old,! and the lumisary of discernment so blazed before the arch of his vision that its expression cannot enter the mould of language, nor, if expressed, would it find access to the narrow hearing of mankind, He has a perfect recollection of this event, and the evidence of eye-witnesses confirms his testimony. The distress of the times ruined many families and multitudes died. In that habitation? about 70 people, in all, male and female, high and low, may have survived. Contemporaries marvelled at the easy circnmstances and general cheerfulness of the dervishes and attributed it to magic and incantation. Sometimes a ser of grain would be obtained, which was set to boil in earthenware vessels, and the warm water distri- buted amongst these people. Most strange of all was that there occurred | no difficulty of provision in my father’s house, and except the worship of God no other thought disturbed his mind, and save an examination of his own conscience and a perusal of the travels of the spirit no other occupation employed him, until the mercy of God was vouchsafed unto all and a aniversal affluence lit the countenance of joy. The royal standards shone again with splendour and by a daily increasing justice filled the world with a new radiance. The palace of wisdom grew in amplitude and the wares of knowledge rose to a high price. Science in its many branches and learning of every kind were now diffused. New elucidations, high and lofty views and important discoveries were published abroad and all classes of men received countless benefits from the treasury of intellect. The quiet . retirement of that discerning nature became the resort of the learned of the universe, and the highest topics were matters of discussion. But the envy that had been chilled now warmed to life, and the malevolence of the wicked increased. My father steadily followed his own course dis-

1 He was born at Agra on the 6th Muharram 958 (14 January 155).

2 I presume this means the quarter in which his family resided. There is no mention of these distresses in Ferishta. Abnl Faz] makes a brief allusion to it in the Akbarnémah. He says that there was great scarcity |throughout Hindustan, and especially in Delhi where the f.mine was extreme, and although Money might be obtained, food-grain was not to be had; men were driven

to feed on human flesh, and parties were formed to carry off any solitary person in order to eat him. Text, Vol. II. 35. Similar stories are told of the great famine in Egypt in A. H. 596 (A. D. 1199) in the Caliphate of Nasirli din ilidh. See Suyati’s History of the Caliphs- Transl. Jarrett, p. 480. In Abd’ul Latif’s History ‘of Egypt, the fact is recorded of parties of men capturing solitary in- dividuals to kill and eat them.

SOME ACCOUNTS OF THE AUTHOR. 427

regarding. the fashion of the times and sitting at the gate of independence pursned not the road of prescribed conventionality. Men of little influence and envious, losing patience followed the path of detraction. Most of them accused him of attachment to the Mahdawi doctrines,! and uttered the most absurd fictions. They stirred up the simple and ignorant, and did their best to produce keen annoyance by their evil intrigues. The chief instra- ment in their hands was the affair of Shaykh Aldi.

There is a sect in India who regard Mir Sayyid Muhammad of Jaun- pur as the predicted Mahdi and go to extreme lengths in this assertion, and forgetting the other demonstrations? of this mission besides doctrine, works, and blameless moral conduct, adopt this movement. In the reign of Salim Khan, a youth called Shaykh Aldi; irreproachable in his character and conduct, fell into this whirlpool, and came into that auspicious city (of Agra),’ originally for the purpose of seeing my venerable father with a view to a life of seclusion and retirement. Certain seditious men who sought bat a pretext, were loud in their frivolous accusations and gave occasion to scandal. The learned of the day who are ignorant pretenders and sell poisonous herbs under show of antidotes, rose up in malice against him and conspired to put him to death, and even obtained judicial decrees. My father did not concur with them and found neither reason nor tradition on their side. They sought to bring the dispute before the Emperor of Hindustan, and strove for their own undoing. The king assembled a council of the learned of the time, and great efforts were made to obtain a legal sentence. My venerable father was also summoned to attend. When his opinion was asked, he gave it against the crafty pretenders who sought but their own advancement. From that day, they maliciously

1 Bee Vol. I. Biog. iii, iv. ff. for the Mahdawi movement and the history of Shaykh Aldi.

earth will give forth her fraits and men’s lives will pass pleasantly, and he will continue on the earth seven, eight or

3 Amongst these are that he must be of the tribe of the Kuraysh and of the family of Fatima. Hia countenance will be open and his nose aquiline, and he will fill the earth with equity and justice as it has been filled with tyranny and oppression. A rival, alao of the Kuraysh, ‘will be raised up to oppose him, who will levy war against him and obtain nid of hig uncles of the tribe of Kalb. Daring the reign of the Mahdi, heaven and earth will be pleased with him and there shall be abundant rains, and the

’

nine years, and dying, will be prayed over by the Muslims. Other tokens have been predicted, such as the black ensigns coming from the direction of Khorasan ; but these were additions made in the in- terest of the Abbasides and for the glory of that house. See also Blochmann’s extract from the Rauzat u’l Aimmah. Vol I. Biog. iii.

8 He first promulgated his own preten ~ gions to the office of Mahdi at Biénah S. W. of Agra. Bloohmann, tbid v. :

428 SOME ACCOUNTS OF THE AUTHOR.

imputed to him an attachment to that cause, and on so trifling a point as to whether the mission of the Mahdi is a tradition of authority or otherwise,! out of sheer malignity, they proceeded to such lengths that he was ruined. Some evil-minded men reviled him for the Shiah tendencies which they presumed he held, not understanding that knowledge is one thing and profession is another.

At this very time they also made a suspect of one of the Sayyids of I’rak* who was among the choicest souls of the age, whose character and conduct were alike virtuous and his precepts harmonized with his actions ; but by the royal favour their arm was shortened from reaching him. One day in the royal presence, they represented that no religious authority should be accorded to the Mir, and that since his views were repudiated, it would be inconsistent to recognize his leadership in religious functions. They adduced some cases in point from ancient Hanafi treatises in support of their conten- tion that the teaching of I’rak dignitaries (ashruf), ought not to be accepted. The prospects of the Mir were gloomy. As he was on terms of fraternal religious intimacy with my father, he laid the whole trath before him, and my father comforted him with judicious counsel and encouraged him to confront more boldly the suggestions of the wicked, aud in refutation of the traditionary authority that had been cited against him, he stated that they had not understood its drift, What had been brought forward from the Hanafi works referred not to Persian but to Arabian I’rik, and many passages he quoted in confirmation thereof ; and further that they had not distinguished between dignitaries xaz’ éfoxyv (ashraf tashraf) and the nobles (ashrdf), for the degrees of royal rewards and punishments are assigned distribatively to four classes. The first is the pre eminent (ashraf i ashif), such as doctors, divines, Sayyids, and holy men. The second is termed ashraf, the noble, that is the officials and land proprietors and the like. The third is styled awsdt, or the intermediate, which is understood as comprising the industrial and commercial professions. The fourth comprises the infe- rior orders who do not rise to the preceding degree, such as the mob and the low rabble. Each of these orders is subject to a separate code of sanctions regulating the acknowledgment of honourable service and the penalties of misconduct, And, indeed, if every evil-doer was to receive the same punishr

1 T accept the variant reading in the & This was probably Miyan Abdu’llah> note, By slat ys is signified traditions a Niyéz{ Afghén and o disciple of Mir related only on one authority, in contra- Sayyid Mohammad of Jaanpir. Soe distinction to plyho ss, traditions sup- Vol. I. Biog. v.

ported by several contemporary and concurrent narrators.

SOME ACCOUNTS OF THE AUTHOR. 429

ment, this would be a deviation from justice. The Mir was emboldened by this assurance and much rejoiced, and in order to clear himself and expose the ignorance of his traducers, he submitted the opinion of the Shaykh for the royal consideration. Those wicked men with their evil machinations were confounded. When they discovered the source of their confusion, they were inflamed with jealousy. Similar instances of assiat- ance such as this were divulged and contributed to the turbulence of the ignorant. Praise be to God that all men agreed in this, that there is no creed that may not in some one particular be in error, nor yet any such that is entirely false, and therefore, that if any one, according to his con- viction, speaks favourably regarding a, doctrine which seems at variance with his own faith, his motives shoul rot be misunderstood, nor should people rise to decry him. After a long controversy, this point was abandoned and they reverted to the accusation of his Shiah tendencies ; but by the protection of God the detractor was covered with shame, his infamy exposed and he was overwhelmed with confusion: nevertheless, in his recusancy and blindness he took no admonition and continued to seek his occasion, confirmed in his malice, until the wondrous ways of destiny ‘ and the caprice of fortune were manifested, and a vast dispersion came as an exemplary warning.

In the fourteenth year of His Majesty’s reign, corresponding to A. H. 977 (A. D. 1569-70), my father came forth from his retirement, and great troubles presented themselves, of which I shall briefly make mention as a hortatory instruction. Although the hornct’s-nest of envy was still in commotion, and the viper’s hole alive with the brood, the night-lamp of friendship dim and even the good intent on molestation had closed the door of estrangement, as has been already alluded to, at this time I say, when learning was regarded with honour and the distinguished of the day were his disciples and the numbers at his lectures were in full attendance and my father, according to his custom, denounced all evil habits and exhorted his friends and well-wishers to avoid them, the learned doctors and divines of the time who regarded his beautiful soul as a mirror to their own defects, maliciously conspired to restore their position. Labouring under the convulsions of their tortuous purposes, they represented to themselves that if they could but adduco some particular instance to convince His Majesty who loved justice, it would signally re-establish their former titles to esteem and result in a condition disastrous (to my father). Oppressed by grief and vexation, they coutinued their intrigues and boldly advancd in a course of detraction and by their sophistries and crafty insinuations they led astray many of the courtiers with their show of affected regrets. Some amongst the evil-disposed they roused by an appeal to their bigotry.

55

430 SOME ACCOUNTS OF TILE AUTHOR.

Although for a considerable period this unseemly conduct had continu- ed, yet by the aid of virtuous and truthful individuals, the couspiracies of the wicked bad always been defeated. At this juncture, however, this honest and trusty band were remote, and the chief of these intriguers - at court set himself to gratify his malice. These shameless wretches and unclean spirits of evil found their opportunity. My venerable father had gone to the house of a servant of God and I had the happiness of accompanying him. That overweening braggart with his affected haughti- ness! was also present at the visit and began his crafty discourse, The conceit of learning and exuberant youth possessed me. I had never before set foot outside of college to be present at any public functions, but his vain words drove me to open my lips and I spoke so much to the point that he was ashamed and the spectators were amazed. From that day, he vowed to avenge his being convicted of ignorance, and emboldened those who had lost heart. My venerable father was unconscious of their designs and I in my pride of knowledge, gave no heed. At first those worldlings without religion, like crafty schemers, convened assemblies ostensibly in the interests of truth and religion, and by persecuting assaults on those who sought but quiet, many were bunted to death. Whenever a monarch, well meaning and with every good intention, leaves the direction of religion, education and justice entirely to a body who are outwardly respectable, and himself assumes in their regard the mantle of indifference, the influence of the truthful and righteous wanes and the crooked-moving white-ants of learning and the courtiers unite in intrigue against these few and bigotry has full sway. And it comes to pass that families are subverted and reputations totally ruined. At such a time when these wretches had gained credit for virtue, like a bride that ig falsely passed off fora virgin and proves a harlot, and when graceless world- lings were triumphant, and the sordid and blind of heart were united ia purpose, sympathetic friends remote, the honest of speech secluded, and the gatherings of contention of the profane frequent, these conspira- cies were hatched and compacts of persecution made. One of the double- faced and fickle, a fallen angel of malevolent cunning who had insidiously crept into the lecture-rooms of my venerable father under a show of sincerity and was in collusion and understanding with that body, was found and despatched at mid-night inspired with impious deceits and

1 This must refer to Makhdém u’l the kingdom and finally his removal by Mulk, whose bold opposition to Akbar’s poison at the instigation of Akbar, if Teligions pretensions caused his dis- the Sunnis are to be believed. See the

mixsal from court, his banishment from notice of his life in Vol, I. Biog. vii.

SOME ACCOUNTS OF THE AUTHOR. 431

spells to infatuate. That clever imposter st dead of night with a tremb- ling heart and tearful eyes, a pallid colour and dejected countenance, hastened to my elder brother’s. chamber and his evil spells disturbed that simple soul and seduced one ignorant of guile and deceit, The purport of his information was this: “The principal men of the day have been for a long time hostile, and the faithless and ungrateful without shame. They have now found this opportunity and mean persecution. Many of these turbaned divines are witnesses and having appointed a prosecutor, have incited him’to procure an investigation on colourable pretexts into their slanders. Every one knows the influence these men have at court and bow’ many eminent men for their own,}ggrandizement they have had put out of their way, and what high-handed persecutions they have enforced. J have a friend in their secret counsels. Even now at midnight he in- formed me of this, and I have in trepidation come to you lest when day breaks it may be too late to mend matters. Now my advice is that they should convey the Shaykh to som> concealment without any one’s know- ledge and let him for a few days live retired until his friends can assemble and he can represent his case fully to His Majesty.” That good soul! took alarm and with much agitation went to the Shaykh’s chamber and informed him of. the case. He answered: “Though my enemies may be powerful, the Almighty is vigilant and a just monarch now rules the world. If a handful of godless unprincipled men are unrighteously filled with envy, the obligation of pledges is still binding and the door of investigation is not closed. Moreover, if the decrees of God for my injury have not been issued, though all are united against me they can avail nothing and can do no evil nor inflict harm upon me; but if the will of the Creator be this, I will cheerfully and gladly give my life and withdraw from the possession of this fleeting existence.” As my brother was scarce master of himself and afflicted with gricf, mistaking truth for self-deception as he had mistaken a false pretext for condolence he drew hig dagger and said, ‘‘ Practical business is one thing and religious mysticism is another; if you do not go I will at once kill myself; for the rest, look you toit. I shall not await here the day of ruin.” The paternal bond and fatherly affection induced compliance with his wish. At the command of that serene sage I was also awoke.

Under compulsion, then, in the darkness of that night, three persons set out, having no appointed guide and unequal to the fatigues of travel My venerable sire, reflecting on the accidents of fortune, maintained silence, while between myself and my brother than whom one more inexpert at

1 This is of conrae Fayzi, his elder brother.

432 SOME ACCOUNTS OF THE AUTHOR.

the time in political dealings or worldly business one could not imagine, a conversation continued and we spoke of our place of retreat. Whomso- ever he mentivned I objected to and whom I named he disapproved.

With outstretched arm against me comes the foe ; No trusty friend averts the thveatened blow. Throughout the world man and his works I see, But not a trace bespeaks humanity.

Driven to extremity, after a thousand difficulties we arrived at the house of a person regarding whose fidelity my brother was assured and of whom I, fasting in the morn of existence and of little account in the market of this elemental frame, had not the least suspicion. At the sight of his peaceful and dignified visitors, the man was surprised and regretted our coming and was in hesitancy how to act. At last he found a place for our lodging. When we entered the house it was more forbidding than his own heart, A strange scene took place and an exceeding sorrow filled our minds. My elder brother hung round me saying, “ Notwithstand- ing my greater experience, I have been mistaken, and thou with little knowledge of men hust judged aright. Now what is to be dove and what is the course proposed, and where may we take refuge?” I replied, “ Noth- ing has as yet happened ; let us return to our own home and let me be the spokesman, and perhaps the badges of office of these worldlings will be removed and the trouble that threatens be overcome.” My father applauded and approved the counsel, but my brother would not consent and said, ‘ Thou hast no knowledge of this business nor perceive the fraud and diabolical malignity of these men. Let us leave this place and discuss as‘we go along.” Although I had not traversed the desert of experience nor the good and evil ways of men, a divine inspiration suggested a person to my mind and I said, “ It has occurred to me that if things go fairly well, such a one will help, but in a time of serious trouble it will be difficult for him to join us.” As time was pressing and our minds in per- plexity we set out in his direction. Footsore we proceeded through ways clogged with mud and reflected on the vicissitudes of fortune. Loosing hold of the “strong handle ”! of reliance in God, trudging onwards dis- spirited and thinking the world in pursuit, we advanced each step with dif- ficulty, breathing with effort, oppressed with exceeding sorrow and believing the day of the resurrection of the wicked at hand.

At dawn we reached his house. At the news he met us with cordiality and found us a suitable lodging and our many cares were some-

1 An expression taken from the Kuran.

SOME ACCOUNTS OF THE AUTHOR. 433

what abated. In this retreat after two days, we learnt that these envious agitators had lifted the veil of shame and openly divulged the intentions of their foul minds and like crafty intriguers on the morning of that night they represented their case to His Majesty and perplexed his august mind. An order was issued from the imperial palace that affairs of state should not be transacted without consultation with them, that this was a question of faith and religion the issue of which lay entirely in their hands, that the fugitives should be summoned before the judicial tribunal and whatever the illustrious law decided and the heads of the government determined should be carried ont. The royal pursuivants were set on and despatched in search, and when they learnt whai had happened they made every . effort at discovery. Some evil-doers,’ ‘plotters of villainy, accompanied them and not finding us in our dwelling and believing a vain report, they surrounded the house and finding my brother Abu’l Khayr in the house they took him tothe court and reported our flight with a hundred embellishments, and made it an occasion of shameless accusations. By an extraordinary favour of heaven His sagacious Majesty was apprised of this gathering of interested detractors and their manner of insinuation, and replied, ‘“‘ Why is all this hostility shown against an obscure dervish and learned ascetic, and what is the object of this senseless clamour P The Shaykh constantly travels and has now probably gone abroad for recreation, Why have they brought this boy ? and why interdicted the house ?” The boy was at once released and the prohibition against the house removed. The breeze of favour now blew upon thatdwelling. Since some difficulties were in the way and apprehension was uppermost and various rumours contradicted the above, we fugitives disbelieving it remained in concealment. The base villains covered with confusion now thought that as their victims were without house and home, this was the time to carry out their desigus and that some dark-minded miscreants should be engaged to kill them wherever they met them, lest they should learn what had happened and introduce themselves to the royal court and secure justice by the lustre of their talents. Concealing, therefore, the | answer of the King, they put forth some alarming and awe-inspiring language as though uttered by his angust lips and thus terrified unsuspect- ing and time-serving friends. And they issued some plausible documents mislending men into wrong conclusions and thus held them back from intended assistance. After a week, the master of the house too becoming discouraged, began to be vexatious and his servants discontinued their former civility. The minds of the fugitives were under apprehension, and their agitated hearts were convinced that the first report had no foundation, that the King was investigating and the werld in pursuit, and that the

‘ 434 SOME ACCOUNTS OF THE AUTHOR.

master of the house would undoubtedly surrender them. An exceeding grief overwhelmed them and a great fear entered their hearts. I said: “Judging for myself, of this much I am assured that the original rumour is correct, ‘otherwise they would not have released my brother nor would the guards over our house have been removed. May not this supposed incivility be only outward? In a time of security whenever an ill rumour was heard, even good men, led away by it, rose against us; now if a man like the master of the house, is afraid, what is there to wonder at? and if he intended to apprehend us, there would have been no change in his outward demeanour and he would not have delayed. The fabrications of male- volent reprobates have undoubtedly bewildered, him and have induced his men to this, so that seeing this discourtesy we should Jeave the house and relieve his mind of anxiety.” Thus reflecting we were somewhat recovered and set ourselves to devise some plan, and a dark day dawned more distressful than the first night, and gloomy was the prospect before us. They applauded both my first opinion and this statement of my views and recognized me as a counseller and trusted adviser and overlooking my youth, they promised not to oppose my advice in future.

When evening drew on, with hearts filled with a thousand anxieties and wounded bosoms and minds oppressed with sorrow, we went forth from that dreadful abode of woe, without a helper in sight, with fainting limbs, no place of refuge visible nor any prospect of peace. On a sudden in that gloomy haunt of demons, a flash shone and gladness smiled again. The house of one of the disciples appeared in sight and there for a while we rested. Although his abode was darker than his heart and his heart blacker than our first night, we reposed a while and recovered from bewilderment, but though at the end of our resources and in the depths of depression, our minds continued active and our thoughts were roused to reflection. As we found no place of rest and nothing to comfort us I remarked that we had of late seen all that our best friends and oldest pupils and most steadfast disciples would do for us. The most advisable course to pursue was now to take ourselves away from this city of hypocrisy which was a dungeon inimical to learning and injuri- ous to perfection, and to withdraw from these double-faced friends and unstable acquaintances whose loyalty rests on the breeze of spring and their permanence ona rushing torrent. Perhaps a corner of privacy might be obtained and a stranger take ug under his protection. There we might learn somewhat of the condition of His Majesty and discover the measure of his anger or clemency. It was possible to fall in with some kindly and upright friends and get a ‘savour of the state of the times. If the accasion be favouralle and fortune propitious we may again see

SOME ACCOUNTS OF THE AUTHOR. 435

better days, and if not, why the expanse of the world hag not been con- tracted. Every bird has its perch and the corner of its nest and there is no commission of perpetual residence in this region of penalty. A certain noble, having obtained an assignment of land in the neighbourhood of the city had here settled; we might decipher the impressions of truth from the daily journal of his circumstances and the odour of his friendship be inhaled by the sense of a penetrating brain, Let us therefore abandoning all else, betake ourselves to him that we may repose somewhat in that inaccessible spot. Although the amity of worldlings has no fixed centre or constancy, there is this much at least that he has no further intercourse with those people. My good brother, changing his garments, set out at once on the road and hastened in that direction. Our friend was delighted at the news and cordially welcomed our advent as a piece of good fortune. And since it was a time of insecurity, he brought some soldiers! with him so that, no harm could Gome to us on the road and we should not be at the mercy of evil-disposed pursuers. In the midnight of despair that ready and vigilant friend arrived and conveyed the good tidings of comfort and brought the message of repose. On the instant we changed our garments and started on our journey and by divers roads arrived at his dwelling. He displayed great geniality and did us the highest service and an exceeding contentment was the barbinger of our happiness, For ten days we rested in his house and were safe from the warfare of the world, when suddenly a disaster more overwhelming than the preceding fell upon us from the firmament of fate. For, verily, the man was summoned to the royal court, and with the same strong potation with which the second man had been intoxicated, they finished this one’s business and he became more hopelessly drunk than the former. He straightway rolled up the parchment of acquaintance.

One night, leaving that place we came to another friend. He welcomed our auspicious arrival as a privilege. But as he lived in the vicinity of an evil-disposed and turbulent person, he fell into great be- wilderment and excceding anxiety nearly drove him distracted. When the house was all asleep, we set forth without any definite destination in prospect and however much we thought and pondered we found no resting place and therefore with an agitated heart and minds oppressed with sorrow, we returned to his house. Strangely enough the men of the house were not aware that we had left it. For a short space we who had severed the cord of reliance on God, took repose and thus forgot our

1 Lit. Turks, bat I apprehond the They were probably Maghals. meaning is any guard of armed men.

436 SOME ACCOUNTS OF TIE AUTHOR.

troubles. My brother expressed his opinion that our leaving the place was an impulse of fear not a counsel of wisdom. However much I re- presented to him that the man’s vacillation was o sufficient guide and the change of manner in his servants a clear proof, it was of no avail and as the signs of dissatisfaction in our host increased, no other remedy was at hand. When that light-headed, improvident and overreaching indi- vidval reflected in his mind that these people ignorant of the inconvenience they cause, will take no hint and will not vacate the house, at daybreak without taking counsel with us or saying a kind word, he marched off and his venal servitors loading their tents took their departure. Here were we three left stranded in the wilds, in the neighbourhood of which a cattle- market had been established. A strange predicament it was—no place to abide in—no idea of whither to go—and no veil to conceal us. On every side were double-faced friends, determined enemies, base and cruel men, and time-servers banded together in pursuit, and we sitting iu the dust of helplessness, in a wilderness without shelter, with gloomy prospects, in pre- sent distress and sunk in prolonged grief. However, in any case it was neces- sary to rise and proceed. Through that concourse of miscreants we passed on; the protection of God hung a veil before the eyes of men, and under the divine assistance and guard we went forth from that place of terror, and abandoning the fears of companionship and all trust in men, we escaped from the reproach of strangers and the God-speed of friends. We happened to come upon a garden where some kind of refuge offered itself. Our lost vigour returned and our hearts were greatly strengthened. And now it suddenly became manifest that some of our graceless pursuers fre- quented the place. Wearied with our search we rested for a while. Then with minds distracted and outwardly woebegone we came forth. In what- ever direction we went, some unforeseen calamity filled us with gloom and our places were scarcely warm ere we set forth again in the wilderness of danger, until at length in this restless wandering and blind vagrancy the gardener recognised us and our condition became desperate. We were nigh expiring and resigning the bond of life. That good man with many ex- pressions of good will restored our drooping spirits and charitably took us to his house and endeavoured to console us. Although my dear brother was still in the same wretched state and every moment grew paler, my spirits on the contrary rose. I read the signs of probity in the coun- tenance of that genial person. My venerable father himself in com- munion with God was on the prayer-carpet of prudence and watched the course of events. Some part of the night had passed when the master of the gardener came forward with great cordiality and lengthened the tongue of reproval saying, “What! with such a friend as Iam here, 4°

c

SOME ACCOUNTS OF THE AUTHOR. 437

you alight in this place of confusion! Why have you plucked your skirts from me ?” and he acted in a manner which we could not have anticipated. Tanswered: ‘In this storm, which is according to an enemy’s desire, we sought withdrawal from all our sincere friends and loyal well-wishers lest any injury befall them on this account.” He was somewhat con- fused and said: “If you are not contented to stay in my house, let us see what can be done.” He indicated to us a place of safety; the appearances of sincerity were evident from his language and following his wish, we chose a quiet nook and there alighted. We found here a retreat such as we desired, and from that place we despatched truthful accounts to people of just and commendable dispositions and to faithful friends, and each one became cognizant of our condition and set about remedying it and thus our pulses were quieted.

We remained a little more than a month in that restful place and my good brother went from Agra to Fathptir,! meaning when he reached the royal camp, to make our devoted partisans more zealous in our behalf. One morning that all-loving and circumspect soul returned with a thousand anxieties and troubles, bringing distressing news. It seems that one of the chief nobles and grey-beard elders of the imperial court on the information of these envious wretches, became furious, and without soliciting the usual permission or paying his submissive respects, entered the presence of Majesty with brusqueness and roughly said, ‘Has the world come to an end or is the day of resurrection at hand that iu this court malicious fanatics have their way and good men are confounded? What ordinance is this that we have; and what ingratitude is this now shown?” My brother who loved peace, acknowledging his good intentions said “To whom dost thou allude and what dost thou want of this person? Hast thou seen a vision? or is thy braiu distracted?” When he mentioned the name, His Majesty was surprised at his wrong impression and said : “‘ All the chicf men of the day seem determined to persecute and do him to death and have passed judicial decrees against him. They give me no peace for amoment. Although I know that the Shaykh is in such and such a place (mentioning our retreat), I purposely take no notice of it, and I answer each one of them with a rebuke. Thou art clamorous withont knowing and dost overstep due limits. Let some one go to-morrow morning and summon the Shaykh to the presence and an assembly of the divines shall be held.” My good brother as soon as he heard of this disturbance came post-haste, and without any one’s knowing, as before, we changed our

clothes and set out and an anxiety more painful than on any previons Sei Ate a ee Penn ey ne ee ee

i This was Pathpdr Sikri. See Vol f. Biog. x,

56

438 SOME ACCUUNTS OF THE AUTHOR.

occasion of disappointment, filled our minds with misgiving. Although it was in some degree evident how far people were in accord with us and what representations had been made by them to His Majesty and the extent of his knowledge of our cirenmstances,—knowledge that could read the invisible—nevertheless a greater apprehension disquieted us. Without our host’s being aware, that very morning we began our journey. The blazing light of the sun, the dark plots of the wicked, the crush in the streets of the city, the movements of the spies, the absence of friends, the lack of these to share our burdens—what power has a pen of wood to tell but a fraction of this situation? and where even eloquent lips would stammer, what craft can lie in its divided tongue? At last with many heart-sinkings we turned into unbeaten tracks and escaped in some measure the turmoil of the city and the eyes of enemies.

Since the condescension of His Majesty had newly beccme manifest, we now proposed to get together some horses and from those wilds to hasten on to the city of auspiciousness and alight at the residence of a cer- tain person of whose integrity we had had long experience. Then perchance this turmoil might abate and the King put forth the hand-of clemency. Of necessity, then, like prudent men, we prepared the requisites of travel and on a night darker than the minds of the envious and more protracted than the machinations uf the vain of speech, we set out on the road. Withal the inexperience of the guide and his crooked proceedings, in the dawn of morning we arrived at that gloomy place. Our not very cordial host though he did not deny us, yet told such a tale of discomfiture as cannot be expressed, and by way of consideration for us said that the occasion had now passed and that His Majesty’s august miud was some- what irritated; had we come before, there would have been no detriment and our difficulties would easily have been overcome: that he could point out a village, in the neighbourhood, in the obscurity of which we might pass a few days until the hallowed pleasure of the King might incline to favour. Putting us into a conveyance he sent us off in that direction. We became a prey to a variety of sorrows. When we reached the spot, the land-proprietor in dependence on whom we had been sent, was absent. We alighted without a shelter in that ruin in the midst of civilization. The overseer Wad occasion to read a document and discovering the signs of intelligence in our appearance, he sent for us. As we were pressed for time we hurried along the road of refusal and it shortly appeared that this village belonged to one of those said stony-hearted miscreants. The man in his stupidity had sent us here. With much disquietude and full of anxiety we flung ourselves out of the place and taking an unknown guide we made for a villaye in the dependency of the capital city of Agra whence

SOME ACCOUNTS OF THE AUTHOR. 439

some savour of friendliness had reached us. Travelling for three kos, on the same day by devious paths we reached our destination. That good man shewed us every courtesy, but it was discovered that there also one of those vain schemers had a farm and that at times he visited the place. Retiring thence, at midnight with downcast hearts we set out for the city and reaching Agra, the capital, at daybreak we discovered the abode of a (sup- posed) friend, Here for a space in this dust-heap of disappointment and dor- mitory of oblivion, this place of depravity abounding in demons, this defile of ignorance, we reposed, but it was not loug before he began to speak of those malevolent! enemies of God and shameless intriguers. In the companion- ship as we were, of such a lying, crazed and quarrelsome fanatic,? our minds were verily oppressed by a now grief and exceeding. bewilderment. And since our feet were worn with tramping, our heads with thoughts of night-travel, our ears with the sound of “come in,” and our eyes with the pricking of sleeplessness, an extraordinary anguish filled our spirits and a weight of grief was in stewardship of our hearts, Of necessity we thought of other plans and the master of the house also, occupied himself in finding a place for us.

Two.days we spent in this interior agitation, and passed the hours in thinking each moment was our last until the recollection of a certain well- disposed person occurred to the saintly mind of that serene sage (my father), and by the aid of the master of the house and his assiduous search he was discovered and a thousand happy announcements brought us security. Straightway we went to that abode of peace and received comfort from the cordiality and genial reception of its master. The breeze of prosperity now blew upon the garden of our hopes’and the face of our circumstances was newly refreshed. Although he was not one of the infallible guides to truth, he possessed a large share of virtue. In obscurity he lived with good repute; he was rich though possessing little, cheerful in his poverty, and though old iu years, youth shono from his aspect. We here had a delightful retreat and we again began our cor- respondence and sought to repair our fortunes.

For two months we continued to abide in this home of comfort and the door of our desire was unclosed. Well-wishers seeking justice came to our rescue and men of experience and high position girt themselves in our aid. With speech of persuasive friendliness and sweet words of reconciliation they won over the seditious intriguers,and ignoble wrong-

1 The text has why) Byth for $e 8 The stop after dsilane should be why. omitted.

440 SOME ACCOUNTS OF THE AUTHOR. iy

doers, and next they brought before His Majesty the exemplary conduct of the Shaykh and made their representations in an engaging and con- ciliatory spirit. His Majesty in his foresight and knowledge of character, vouchsafed the most gracious answers and in his generous impulse and magnanimity desired his attendance. As I was inexperienced in worldly affairs, I did not accompany him and that illumined sage with my elder brother set the face of supplication to the royal court. At once the hornets’ nest of the ungratefal was quiet. The disturbed world was at peace. The courses of instruction and the quiet sanctuary of holy recollection were established as before, and the age again displayed the ways of the just.

Love’s quarrels of the past, O night, bring never back their pain, Nor secrets of the heart reveal as yesterday again,

For wearily the hours crept by, thou knowest, with lagging feet, But give, O, give me back the days of love and union sweet.

About this time my venerable father went on a pilgrimage to holy Delhi and took me with him accompanied by some of the disciples of his saintly conferences. Since the time he had taken up his abode in the metropolis he was so much absorbed in spiritual contemplation in that hermitage of light that he had had no leisure to observe the marvels of earth. Suddenly this desire took possession of his heart and he loosened the skirt of resolve, and honouring me with unique consideration, he made me, who over and above the earthly bonds of sonship was attached by spiri- tual ties, a partaker of his secret.

To recount briefly; once at early dawn, when bis heart was lifted up to heaven and he was upon the carpet of praise and supplication, between sleeping and waking, Khawajah Kutbu’ddin U’shi and Nizim u’ddin Awliyd appeared to him, and upon this a conference of numerous divines met and a feast of reconciliation was celebrated, and it was proposed to visit their tombs by way of propitiation and there perform a religious ceremonial after their ordinances. My venerable father after the manner of his saintly ancestors, preserved an exact outward decorum and indulged not in the hearing of songs nor the vanity of silk attire! and did not approve of the ecstasies of music and dance affected by the Sifis. He spoke against the followers of this practice and he used constantly to say that*on the assumption of the indifference between rich and

I See his change of opinion in this by Badégoni. Vol. I. xix. respect in the character of him drawn

SOME ACCOUNTS OF THE AUTHOR. 44}

poor, praise and blame, earth and gold, which was one of the principles on which this system proceeded, it contained within itself the volatility of unrest and he regarded it as 4 place of backsliding unto the wise. He commanded a rigid abstention therefrom, withdrew from it himself aud restrained his friends. But, in truth, on this night, these slumberers on the couch of vigilance who looked on this ceremony ‘as they would on their last journey, went intosuch exhaustive proof of the innocence of their intention and the morality of the act that they carried away the con- currence of my father. In that happy journey many of the tombs of those who sleep in that land of roses were passed, and hearts were filled with light, and blessings were vouchsafed (whereof if the uarrative were detailed, men would regard it as an idle fiction and in suspicion might impute the stain of sin), until I was: carried from the hermitage of seclu- sion to the court of worldly intercourse and the gate of prosperity was opened and I obtained the summit of distinction. The condition of the inebriate with greed and those who were a prey to envy became gloomy and my heart was pained and compassionated their confusion. I made a stead- fast vow to the Almighty and I promised myself that the wronging of these blind souls who are asa lamp withont light and an invisible sign, should be effaced from the path of my upright heart and I would allow no feeling but kindness to enter therein. By the aid of the grace of God I enforced this resolve and gained new satisfaction and my mind new vigour. Men abandoning evil-doing took to sociability and drew the breath of repose. My venerable father occupied himself in admonition and exposed the quarrelsomeness, the crooked ways, the untruth and the unworthiness of men and enjoined the chastisement of evil-doers. I was inclined to be reticent about speaking of these close secrets and was ashamed to reply to my venerable father. Tventually 1 was compelled to represent what had happened to him to His Majesty and relieved the ebullition of my father’s spirit. Many of his anxieties were now relieved and his long open wounds were healed.

To make a long story short, when the imperial standards advanced to the capital of Lahore for reasons of state, and my heart was sore at parting from that preceptor of truth, in the thirty-second year of the reign, corresponding with the lunar year 995 (A. D. 1586-87), I invited his gracious visit. On the 23rd of the 3rd month (Khurdad)! of the Divine Era and the thirty-second year of the reign, coinciding with Saturday, the 6th of Rajab of the above lunar year (3lst May, 1586), that knower of all

1 See Vol. II. p. 30, 81,

442 SOME ACCOUNTS OF THE AUTHOR.

things material and spiritual fulfilling my desire, cast the shadow of his beneficence on me who though engaged in the world preferred solitude, and honoured me by special kindnesses. He ever found delight in seclusion, and renouncing all else passed his days in self introspection and in the tenovation of the ever-capricious spirit. ;

Inasmuch as he troubled himself little about worldly knowledge, his conversation was always regarding the essence and attributes of God and he took heedful warning and led an independent life apart and gathered the skirts of liberation of spirit until his nugust health lost its elementary equilibrium. Although he had often suffered in the same way before, he learnt on this occasion, that it was his last journey and summoning this bewildered creature addressed me in words of salutary advice and went through the last obligations of farewell. As all that he said was between us alone and he shared with me in confidence his inmost thoughts, I kept down my anguish of heart and with many efforts commanded some self-restraint and by the miraculous efficacy of that leader in the world of sanctity, to some extent was calm. After seven days, in full con- sciousness and at the very dawn of the 24th of the 5th month (Amurddd) of the Divine Era, on the 17th of Zi’lkaadah, A. H. 1001. (Tuesday 4th August,! 1593) he passed into the gardens of paradise. The luminary of the firmament of knowledge became obscured and the light of an understanding that knew God grew dim. The back of Learning was bowed and the days of Wisdom itself passed away. Jupiter withdrew his robe from his head and Mercury destroyed his pen.*

Gone from the world is he its peerless sage That to its gaze oped Wisdom’s heavenly page. Where shall his orphaned kin such marvel find, The Adam and Messiah of his kind!

This has been to some extent evidenced in what has gone before.

~e a titetietl Oe 1 In the Biography of Abul Fazl % The office of Jupiter in the Oriental (Vol. I. xviii) Blochmann gives the date planetary system is supposed to be that asthe 4th September, but this cannot of a Kazi, and the robe represents his be, as the year 1001 began on Monday, official dignity. Mercury is the heaven- 28th September 1592, and Zi’l Hijjah ly scribe.

follows Zi’lkaadah.

SOME ACCOUNTS OF THE AUTHOR. 443,

As I have now recounted somewhat of my ancestors, L proceed to say few words regarding myself and thus unburden my mind, in order to refresh this narrative and loosen the bonds of my tongue. In the year 473 of the Jalali era, corresponding to the night of Sunday, the 6th of. Muharram 958 of the lunar reckoning (lith January 1551), my pure spirit joined to this elemental body came forth From the womb into this fair expanse of the world. At a little over one year I had the miraculous gift of fluent speech and at five years of age I had acquired an unusual stock of inform- ation and could both read and write. Atthe age of seven I became the treasurer of my father’s stores of knowledge and a trusty keeper of the jewels of hidden meaning and asa serpent,! guarded the treasure. And it was strange that by a freak of fortune my heart was disinclined, my will ever averse, and my disposition repugnant to conventional learning and the ordinary courses of instruction. Generally I could not anderstand them. My father in his way conjured with the spell of knowledge and taught me a little of every branch of science, and although my intelligence grew, I gained no deep impressions from the school of learning. Some- times I understood nothing at all, at others doubts suggested themselves which my tongue was incapable of explaining. Hither shame made me hesitate or I had not the power of expression. I used to weep in public and put all the blame upon myself. In this state of things I came into fellowship of mind with a congenial helper and my spirit recovered from that ignorance and incomprehension. Not many days had elapsed before his conversation and society induced me to go to college and there they restored to rest my bewilderéd and dissipated mind and by the wondrous working of destiny they took me away and brought another back. :

The temple as I entered, drew they nigh

-And brought their gift, a wine-cup brimming high. Its strength snatched all my senses, self from self, Wherein some other entered and not I.

The truths of philosophy and the subtletivs of the schools now appeared plain, and a book which I had never before seen gave me a clearer insight than any thing I could read. Although I had a special gift which came down upon me from the throne of holiness, yet the inspirations of my venerable father and his making me commit_to memory the essential elements of every branch of science, together with the unbroken continuity

1 This Oriental legend of the fabulons ita paraliel in the myth of the Hesperides, guardianship of treasure by a serpent has

414 SOME ACCOUNTS OF THE AUTHOR.

of this chain, was of immense help, and became one of the most important causes of my enlightenment. . For ten years longer I made no distinction between night and day, teaching and learning, and recognized no difference between saticty and hunger, nor discriminated between privacy and society, nor had I the power to dissever pain from pleasure. I acknowledged nothing else bat the bond of demonstration and the tie of knowledge. Those who had a regard for my constitution, from seeing that two and some- times three days passed without my taking food, and that my studious spirit had no inclination therefor, were amazed, and stood out strongly against it. Ianswered that my withdrawal was now a matter of habit and custom, and how was it that no one was astonished when the natural inclination of a sick man on an attack of illness was averse from food. If therefore my love of study induced forgetfulness, where was the wonder P Most of the current arguments of the schools, frequently misquoted and misunderstood when heard, and abstruse questions from ancient works, had been presented to the fresh tablet of my mind. Before these points had been elucidated and the attribution to me of extreme ignorance had passed to that of transcendent knowledge, I had taken objection to ancient writers, and men learning my youth, dissented, and my mind was troubled and my inexperienced heart was in agitation. Once in the early part of my career they brought the gloss of Khwajah Abu’l Kasim, on the Mufaw- walt <All that I had stated before learned doctors and divines of which some of my friends had taken notes, was there found, and those present “were astounded and withdrew their dissent, and began to regard me with other eyes and to raise the wicket of misunderstanding and to open the gate of comprehension. In my early days of study, the gloss of Isfahant more than half of which had been eaten by white ants, came under my ob- servation. The public being in despair at profiting by it, I removed the parts that had been eaten and joined blank paper to the rest. In the serene hours of morning, with a little reflection, I discovered the beginnings and endings of each fragment and conjecturally penned a draft text which I transcribed on the paper. In the meanwhile the entire work was dis-

1 Commenturius longior, the name of a celebrated commentary of Snado’ddin Masaad-b-U’marat-Taftdzini (died A. H. 792, A. D. 1889) on the Talkhtsu’l Miftdh of Shaykh and Imam Jalalo’ddin Mahbmid-b-Abdu’r Rahman al-Kazwini ash-Shafiai (died A. H. 739, A. D. 1338). The latter work is on tho analysis of

grammatical signification and the expla- natory science, t.e., rhetoric. Haji Kha- lifah devotes several pages to its dotail and the glosses that have been written on it and on its commentary the Mutaw- wal. That referred to in the text is by Abu’l Kisim-b-Abi Bakr al-Laithi as- Sumarkandi.

SOMR ACCOUNTS OF THE AUTHOR. 445

covered, and when both were compared, in two or three places only were there found differences of words, though synonymous in meaning; and in three or four others, (differing) citations but approximate in sense. All were astounded.

The more my will was engaged, the more my mind was illumined. At the age of twenty the good tidings of my independence reached me, My mind cast off its former bonds and my early bewilderment recurred. With a parade of much learning, the intoxication of youth effervescing, the skirts of pretension spread wide, and the world-displayiug cup of wis- dom in my hand, the ringings of delirium began to sound in my ears, and suggested a total withdrawal from the world. Meanwhile the wise prince- ‘regnant called me to mind and drew me from my obscurity, somewhat of which I have in its entirety and somewhat but approximately suggested and acknowledged. Here my coin bis been tested and its full weight passed into currency. Men now view me with a different regard, and many effusive speeches have been made amid felicitous congratulations evoked.

On this day which is the last of the 42nd year of His Majesty’s reign (A. D. 1598), my spirit again breaks away from its yoke and a new solicitude arises within me.

My songster heart knows not King David’s strains : Let it go free—’tis no bird for a cage.

I know not how it will all end norin what resting-place my last journey will have to be made, but from the beginning of my existence until now the grace of God has continuously kept me under its protection. It is my firm hope that my last moments may be spent in doing His will and that I may pass unburdened to eternal rest.

As the enumeration of the benefits of God is one way of expressing gra- titude therefor, I here set down a few of these and invigorate my spirit :—

The first blessing which I possessed was in belonging to a noble family. It may be hoped that the virtue of my ancestors may atawe for my unworthiness and prove a restoration in allaying the turbulence of my spirit, as pain by medicine, fire by water, heat by cold, and a lover by the sight of his beloved. :

The second, the prosperity of the age and the general security of the times. -As eminent men of old have belanded thé-justice of strangers, what wonder if I glory in the puissance of the monarch of the visible and invisible worlds.

The third, the happy fortune that brought me from the womb of fate into so happy a time when the august shadow of majesty has fallen upon me.

57

446 SOME ACCOUNTS OF THE AUTHOR.

The fourth, my noble birth on both sides. Somewhat of my father has already been said. WhatshallI write of her, (my mother), the fragrance of chastity ? She possessed all the noble qualities of men and always adorned her precious hours with good works. She united modesty with strength of character, and her words were in accord with her deeds.

The jifth, soundness 0 of limbs, proportionate balance of powers and their conformity. !

The sixth, a long ministering unto those two blessed personages. It was a fortress against outward and inward disasters, and a fence against material and spiritual calamities.

The seventh, excellent health, and the antidote of bodily vigour.

The eighth, a good house.

The ninth, freedom from care as to means, and happy circumstances.

The tenth, a daily increasing delight in doing the will of my parents.

The eleventh, the kindness of a father which beyond the ambition of the times loaded me with many bounties and distinguished me as the true patriarch of his house.

The twelfth, prayerfulness at the throne of God.

The thirteenth, imploring the favours of pious ascetics and true seekers _ of wisdom.

The fourteenth, a perpetual guiding grace.

The fifteenth, the collection of books on sciences. Without dishonour- able curiosity I became acquainted with the tenets of all creeds, and my spirit was weary of their multitude.

The sixteenth, the constant incitement to study on the part of my father and his restraining me from dissipating thoughts.

The seventeenth, virtuous companions.

The eighteenth, a material love, ordinarily the disturber of households and an earthquake of moral obligations, guided me to the goal of perfection. This wonder fills me ¢very moment with a new astonishment and from time to time I am lost in amazement.

The nineteenth, the service of His Majesty which is a new birth and fresh happiness.

The twentieth, the recovery from my arrogant presumption through the grace of His Majesty’s service.

The twenty-first, attaining to a ‘perfect peace theouil blessings of his august condescension. For some turned from speech to silence; others joined in harmony with the upright of all sects, and for the remaining evil-doers, their penitence being accepted, a reconciliation was brought about. May Almighty God remove the impressions of evil by the rays of knowledge,

SOME ACCOUNTS OF THE AUTHOR. 447

The twenty-second, my spiritual intercourse with the King of all those that know God. ;

The twenty-third, the raising of me up by His wise Majesty and the bestowal upon me of his confidence without the recommendation of men or my own seeking.

The twenty-fourth, the possession of brethren wise, virtuous, and seek- ing the pleasure of others.

Of my eldest brother what shall I say ? who notwithstanding his spiritual and worldly perfections, took no step without my concurrence, indiscreet as I am, and devoting himself to my interests, advanced my pro- motion and was rn aid to good intentions. In his poems he speaks of me in a manner which I cannot sufficiently acknowledge, as he says in his Eulogium : ‘ . My verse may share both great and little worth,

lis theme sublime—I lowlier than the earth.

A father’s virtues shall it far proclaim

And vaunt the glory of a brother’s fame ;

He, touchstone of all wisdom, who inspires

My strain with sweetness that a world admires ; If through a riper age, I pass him by,

In merit, centuries between us lie.

What though the branching savin taller grows, What gardener mates its beauty with the rose ?

He was born in the Jalali year 469, corresponding to A. H. 954 (A. D. 1547), In what tongue shall I indite his praise P In this work I have already written of him! and poured forth the anguish of my heart, and quenched its furnace with the water of narration and broken the dam of its torrents and alleviated my want of resignation. His works which are the scales of eloquence and penetration and the lnwns of the birds of song, praise him? and speak his perfections and recall his virtues.

Another was Shaykh Abu’l Barakét. He was born on the night of the 6th of Mihr Mah (September) of the Jalali year 475, corresponding to the nigkt of the 17th Shawwal, A. Hf. 960 (25th September 1553), Although he has not attained to any high distinction in learning, he has nevertheless a considerable share of erudition, and in knowledge of affairs and as a military tactician? and for his practical sagacity he is considered

1 See Vol. I. p. 548. 8 Blochmann translates ‘well versed 2 The pronoun sy! must be undorstood in fencing.’ I do not think this is tho sig- here. nification of gstyTpded It would

448 - SOME ACCOUNTS OF THE AUTHOR.

one of the foremost. He is especially distinguished for his goodness of disposition, his reverence for holy men, and his benevolence.

Another was Shaykh Abv’l Khayr. He was born on the 10th of fsfanddrmuz (February) in the fourth year of His Majesty’s reign, corres- ponding to Monday, the 22nd of Juméda I., A. H. 967 (18th February 1560). The bighest morals and most excellent qualities distinguished his disposition. He understood the temper of the times and kept his tongue like all his other members under the command of reason.

The next was Shaykh Abu’l Makérim. His birth took place on the night of the Ist of Urdibshisht (April) in the 14th year of His Majesty’s reign, corresponding to Monday, the 23rd of Shawwal, A. H. 976 (9th April 1569). Although at first he was a little unruly, the. miraculous efficacy of my venerable father’s will brought him back to the path of duty and rectitude and he read much of philosphy and tradition under that discerner of the mysteries of the spiritual and material worlds. Somewhat before his study of the ancient philosophers he read with Amir Fath wllah Shirdzi.! He walks with circumspection and I trast he may reach the goal of his desire. 3

The next was Shaykh Abdi Turib. He was born on the Ist of Bahman Mah (January), in the 29th year of the reign corresponding to Friday, 28rd of Zi’l Hijjah A. H. 988 (27th January 1581). Although he was by another mother, he bas the happiness of being admitted to court and occupies himself in the acquisition of all perfections.

The next was Shaykh Abu’l Hamid. He was born on the 6th of Day Mah (December) the 30th of the reign, corresponding to Monday the 3rd Rabii’ II., A. H. 1002 (17th December 1593).

The next was Shaykh Abi Rashid. He was born on the 5th of Bahman Méh i Lidhi (January), the 23rd year of the reign corresponding with Monday, Ist of Jumada I of the same year (12th January 1594).

Although these (last) two scious of the house of prosperity are of concubines, they bear on their countenances the marks of good breeding. That illustrious sage when informed of their coming birth, fixed the names they were to bear. Before they were born he died. I hope that through his inestimable prayers, fortune may wait on happiness and that they may become the recipients of numerous favours.

Although my elder brother is dead and has thrown the world into mouraing, I pray that the other nurslings of joy may attain to long life

apply only to ¢55’y yamwd, Abn’l Bara- tunity if not the distinction of military két served under his brother Abul Fazl command.

in Khandésh where he had the oppor- 1 See Vol. I. p. 33. . Vol. IT. p. 30.

SOME ACCOUNTS OF THE AUTHOR. “449

in glad prosperity and the fraition both of this world and the next and be blessed with good things temporal and spiritual.

The twenty-fifth, my marriage into an honourable house and a family distinguished for learning and the respect in which it was held. This gave my outward person credit and was as a leading rein to my unruly spirit, Hindu, Kashmiri and Persian wives were occasions of great joy to me.

The twenty-siath, the blessing of a dear and virtuous son, He was born on the night of the 18th of Day Mah (December) in the 16th year of the reign, corresponding to Monday night, the 12th Shabdn 979 (29th December 1571.) My father named him Abdu’r Rahman. Although he is of Hindustani extraction, he has the Greek temperament and is fond of study, has much experience of the good and evil of life, and his countenance displays the marks<of a happy fortune. His Majesty has allied him in marriage with his foster family.!.

The twenty-seventh, the sight of a grandson. On the night of the 30th of the month of Amurdéd Mahi Iléhi in the 30th year of the reign cor- responding with Friday, 3rd Zi’l Kaadah 999 (13th August 1591), in an auspicious moment, this child of happy destiny appeared and the favour of God became manifest. His Majesty gave this sapling in the garden of felicity the name of Bishitan It is my hope that he may be blessed with the highest perfections of nature*and grace and attain to the fruition of eternal bliss.

The twenty-eighth, a love for the study of moral treatises.

The twenty-ninth, the knowledge of the rational soul. For many years Lhad studied the principles of ontology and physics and had conversed much with the professors of these two sciences and all the proofs by indagation and evidence, inductive and ocular, had come under my obser- vation. Still the path of doubt remained unclosed and my miud was not satisfied. By the blessing of faith this difficulty was solved and I became convinced that the rational soul is a subtile divine essence separate from the body, having, however, a peculiar union with this ele- mental form.

The thirtieth, that from high principle, the awe of the great in place has never withheld me from speaking the truth nor interfered with my pursuit of knowledge and light, nor the fear of ruin to proverty, life and reputation made me falter in this resolution; thus my course has run on like a flowing stream:

1 “ Akbar married him to the daughtor 3 The name of the son of Gasht&sp, of Saddat Yar Kokah’s brother.” Bloch- and brother to Isfandiy fr. mann. Vol. I. xxxv.

450 SOME “ACCOUNTS OF THE AUTHOR.

The thirty-first, indifference to worldly considerations.

The thirty-second, the grace to complete this work. Although the motive of this divine book is the praise of God which I have proclaimed with a tongue under the spell of a daily increasing felicity and gratitude for His favours expressed by the language of my pen, nevertheless it is the fountain head of various knowledge and a mine of wisdom to many. To industrious workers it is a guide, and the triflers and gay will find their portion therein. To youth it will be a source of pleasure, to manhood a cause of pride. The stricken in years will there find the experience of ages, and those who lavish the silver and the gold of this world will therein recognise the ordinances of manly fortitude. To the jewel of perspicacity it is a glad weighing-place; to the grasses of freedom, a fertile soil, It is the wicket to the laboratory of skill for the morn of felicity, the deep sea of creation’s gem. The favoured who seek for fame will in it find the road thereto, and the godly who parsue truth will rejoice in the custody of the volume of their deeds. Merchants of every kind of ware will learn the ways of profit, and champions in the arena of valour will read therein the tablets of heroism. Those who mortify the flesh for the edification of the spirit will take therefrom the institutes of virtue, and the blessed and sincere of heart will gather thence treasures without end, while those who repose in the pleasant vales of truth will by its means attain to their desire.

A wondrous work herein behold That wisdom’s treasures all enfold ; So fair upon its page they sliow That he who reads shall wiser grow.

These various benefits annonnce the good tidings which my heart hears in gladness that the conclusion of my task will make for goodness and avail me unto everlasting bliss.

Although the son of Mubarak is at the present time the object’ of resentment and held up as a warning to mankind, and a strife of love and hate is kindled in his regard, the worshippers of God who seek truth give him the name of Abu’l Wahdat,! and account him a unique servant of the Supreme Giver. The valourous in the field of bravery style him Abu’l Himmat and deem him one of the wonders of carnal self-denial. Wisdom

1 The Father of Unity, i.e., professing Abu’l Fitrat, the father of understand- the unity of God, instead of Abo’l Fazl, ing. I would amend the csiyhs of the the father of bounty. Abo’l Himmat text, to be Kybs. ‘

signifies the father of resolution, and

seve’ Kobo ins OF THE AVTHOR. 451

*y

proclaims him Abu’l Pitvat, hd considers him a choice specimen of that sublime theuse. In the witfhgs ef the vulgar hevd whitch are noisy dens of ignorance, seme attribute worldtiness to him and held him to be one of those phunged into this whirlpool, while others vegard bim as given up to scepticism and apestacy, aud bard togetlierin reproof and condem- nation.

Of me a bundred fictions rumoured fly,

Aad the world stares if I a word reply.

-Ged be praised that £ am not moved from these honorable sisotttiens ‘by watching the-strange vicissitudes of life, nor turn from well-wishing both. to those who blame and: those who commend, and defile not niy-tongue with veproof or praise. ro

The duliard’s eye to sterling merit dim,

True ring of minted gold tells nought to him. Worth must from noble seuls anhidden blaze,

As from the moon her light, from Jupiter his rays.

INDEX TO THE THIRD VOLUME

OF THE

AYN-I-AKBARE.

[The numbers refer to the pages; ™. means ‘ footnote.’ }

eee

. La) A xvas, 80 and n. Aaron, 377, . Abddhita vishayatua, 144 aud n 1. Xbah, 84. Abarkah, 67. AXbaskin, 86, 348 and 7 3. . Abbadén, 66. Abbasides, The, 427 n 2. Abbi Bargés, 61 n. Abdéis, The, 876 and n 3, 877. Abdo’l Ghafdr of Lér, Maulind, $74. Abdw’’l Hakk, Shaykh Muhd., 374. Abdu’! Kédir, Mauland, 875. Abdo’l Kédir Jili, 357, 362, 419.) Abdu’! Karim, 76 x. Abdu’l Kuddis, Shaykh 374 and n 2. Abdu’! Latif, 75 2. Abdu’’l Latif’s History of Egypt, 426 n 2. Abda’l Malik, Caliph, 840. Abdu’! Muti, Mhd., 353 x. Abdo’l Wahhéb, Shaykh Haji, 374, Abdu’l W4bid-b-Zaid, 854, 857. Abda’Jiah Khén, 346, 387 and n 1.

~—~Abdu’llah-ibn-w’l Mukffa, 340 2. =

Abdo’llah-b-Tahir, 85 2,

Abdu’r Rahmfn, 75 n.

Abdv’r Rashid-b-Mahmad, 841.

Abdt’r Razzék, Shaykh, 374, 419.

Abelmenla, 378 7 1.

Abhar, 83 and n, 84 , 87/7, 862 x 2.

Abhdva, 182, 134, 188 n 8, 151, 154, 156 2 4.

58

Abhidha, 239 n 1.

Abhijit, 22 and n 1.

Abhinivega, 181.

Abhisdrikd, 248,

Abhydsa, 182.

Abishkhwur Nii Serébdil, 852.

Abiward, 92 and n, 357.

Ablak, al-, 57 ».

Abraham, 843 » 1, 376, 877 » 1, 418.

Abrakhis, 90.

Abram, 876 n 2,

Abrérs, The, 876 n 8.

Abrik, 99.

Abi, 189 n.

Abé Almad Abdél, Khw4jah, 357.

Abia Ali al-Farisi, 422 2.

Aba Ali Firozébadi, 356.

Abi Bakr al-Harawi, 99 2.

Abi Bukr as Siddik, 84 x, 356, 360.

Aba Dulef, 83 x,

Abé Hafs, 351, 352.

Abt Hanifah, 370, 374, 421.

Aba Hurayrah, 391 n.

Abi Ishik-b-Shahryér, 356.

Abd Ishék Shém{, 357.

Abd Maashar of Balkh, 8, 29 » 1, 849.

Aba Nawas, 79 n.

Abd Said al-Mubérak, 358.

Abi Sarfya, 826 n 5.

Abd Sufyén Thauri, 851 and n 2, 355 » I, $57.

Abé Talib, Shaykh, 353.

Aba Tij; 71,

454 INDEX.

Abi U’bayd Bisri, 353. - Achilles Tatius, 38 » 17 Abii Umayyah, 354 n 3. Achin, 7.

Aba Zaid, 54 2. Acre, 64 #.

Abu’! Abbé, al-Khizr, 375. Add; 258.

Abu’ Akal, 49 2. Adabu’) Maridin, The, 357.-

Abuai Fazl, 10» 1, 18 2,151,191, Adam, 49 n, 184 » 1, 826 and 2 1, 397,

22 n 2,26 n 1, 42. nn 1 and 2, 43, n 8, 46

a 1, 642, 66 n, 81 n, 94 7, 97.2195 21, Adanah, 78.

110” 1,117 n 8, 123 21, 12971, 130 Adbhuta, 241.

» 1, 185 » 1, 1572 2,168, 161 21, Adelard de Bath, 30 n 1.

168 n, 16671, 1742 4,176n 2, 178 n, | Aden, 48, 50», 54n.

191 2 2,195 nv 1 and 8, 200 » 6, 202 n, Aden, Gulf of, 47 2, 48 2.

204, 206, 2ll 21, 218 n, 220 74, Adhah, 113.

221n8, 222 nm Land 2, 22822, 232 Adhamd, 248.

1, 233 21, 288 nx 2 and 3, 239 n 1, 240 Adhani order, The, 354.

n 3, 248 2 8, 246 n, 247 2 3,248.22, | Adharma, 137, 141, 201 mm 2 and 4, 202

250 n 5, 252 2, 353 n 2, 261 a 1, 264

n 2, 264,

n 2, 269 » 1, 271 n 8, 276 n 2, 807 Adharm dstikdya, 201. n 4, 308 21, 3192, 331 » 1, 340» | Adhatt, The, 255.

1, $347 n 2, 351 n 2, 858 7 3, 361 », Adhibhautika, 178. 368 nm 1, 873 » 1, 876 21,3781, | Adhidaivike, 173. 390 n 8, 394, » 1, 404 n 1, 41023, Adhtna, 150.

418 n8, 421 n 1, 428 n 2, 426 » 2, Adhtrd, 242.

44221, 448 nv. Adhudu’d Danlah, 25 2 1, 74 2. Abu’l Fazl, minister of Samani, 340 n. Adhydtmika, 178. Abulfeda, 291, 3821, 39 n 2, 48° 8, Adhydyd, 150, 176.

47 n, 48 n, 49 n, 50 n, 51 n, 52 n, 58 2, Adhyayana siddhi, 176.

E4 n, 56 n, 57 n, 58 n, 59 n, 60 2, 61 n, Adin&tha, 192, 197. 62 n, 68 n, 65 n, 66 2, 67 n, 68 2, 70 2, Aditi, 227 and n 2, 228, 280, 288, 290. 11, 72 2, 73 2, 74.2, 75 0, 76 2, 97 2, Aditya Upa-purdna, The, 220.

79 n, 80 2, 812, 82x, 83 2, 842, 85 xn, Adityaloka, 149 and n k.

87 n, 88.2, 89 n, 90 n, 91 n, 92 n, 98 n, Adityas, The, 227 n 2, 290.

94 7, 95 n, 96 n, 97 n, 98 n, 100 n, 101 Adrishta, 148 2 1.

m, 103 n, 104.2. Adalis, 48 #.

Abildah, 102. A-dvaita, 159 n. Abu’l Hawéri, Ahmad, 352. MEgean, The, 110 » 1. Abu’l Kasim, Khwéjah, 444 and « 1. ABschylus, 109 n 2. Abw’l Mafli N. Mustanfi, 841. Afam, 106.

Abu’l Muayyad, Shaykh Nizfimu’ddin, Afghan of Sh4l, 119.

366. Afghanistah, 124 » 426 » 1. Abydos, 101 2. Afghinpir, 865 x 1. Abyssinia, 47 and x, 109, 124 x. Afrasiéb, 29 n 1,87 ». Abzon, 101. Afréz Haroz, 81”. Achamiyyé, The, 805. Africa, 202, 488, 49, 522, 63 n,

Achdrdnga, The, 203. Achdrya, The, 206.

61, 62, 71, 81.2, 902, 9, 10822, 116, 124 n.

Achérya, 283. African, Province of, 62 2.

¢

INDEX. 455

Agada-tantra, 225 n.

Agama, 237.

Aghades, 55 n.

Aghmat, 70.

Agharjah, 96.

Agni, 113 and x 2, 153 n 3, 168% 1, 172 » 1, 224 n 3, 276 2» 1.

Agni Purana, The, 220,

Agnidhra, 31 # 1.

Agni-hotra, The, 276 and n 2.

Agra, 59, 261, 288 and n, 289, 292, 423, 425 n 2, 426 n 1, 427 and n 8, 437, 438, 439,

Ahalya, 151 n. ‘al

Ahankdra, 189 n 1, 162, 163, 165 n 3, 170, 171, 178, 174, 178, 302 and n 3.

Ahata, 245.

Ahin&a, 184.

Ahir caste, The, 316 n 1.

Ahitit-pijd, The, 277.

Abmad Gugarati, Sultan, 371.

Ahmadabad, 58, 371, 42).

Ahnika, 160.

Alsd, 58 and x.

Aht, 897.

Ahwaz, 64 7, 65, 66 1, 73 and n, 336 7 1, 407 n 1.

Aidhab, 57.

Aimdk, 118 n.

Aindra, 172.

Aindreyaka, 173 n 4.

Ain-i-Akbari, The, 3!2 n 2.

Ain Jarah, 76.

Aintab, 91.

Ain u’sh Shams, 74.

Air, nine kinds of, 17.

Airdvata, 286.

Aisvarya, 171, 180, 187.

Aitihya, 156 n 4,

Ajtva, 201 and # 3, 202 2 2.

Ajmer, 59, 362, 421 » 1.

Ajmere-Merwar, 307 n 2.

Ajnrdna, 140 n 2, 160, 164, 165.

Ajodhan, 364, 865, 368,

Ajodhya, 59.

Akabah, §3 n, 63.

Akabah, Gulf of, 57 7.

Akadir, 61 2.

Akéranga Sttra, The, 203 2 1, 208 n 1.

Akdéa, 182, 200, 202 » 2.

Akbar, 2, 9, 12, 15, 59, 69, 120, 125, 210 212, 252 and n, 257, 258, 278, 314 n 3, 331 n 1, 349 » 1, 368 n, 380, 383 1, 887 n 1, 892, 404 1, 405, 417, 421 » 1, 425 n 2, 480 2 1, 44901.

Akbar’s Dream, 272, 21.

Akbarnamah, The, 359, n 1, 416, 426 n 2.

Akerman, 102 2, 104 ts.

Akhdrd, The, 258.

Akhf Sirdéj, Shaykh, 365, 371.

Akhilét, 93.

Akhmim, 55 n, 56 2.

Akhsikat, 98 and n.

Akhtib, 378 and » 1.

Akhyars, The, 376 3.

Akja-Kirman, 102.

Aklish¢é, 180.

Aksarai, 95.

Aksha, Latitude, 35.

Akshahbr, 95.

Akshara, 150.

Aksur, 55, 56 7.

Alabdha-bhiimikatva, 181.

Al-Ablak, 57 n.

Alaf Khan, 865 n 1.

Alaknanda, The, 226 2.

Alaksar, 56 7.

Alanjah, 53, 56 2.

Aldpa, 252 n and n 3, 253 n.

Alasya, 181.

Algo’ddaulah, Shaykh, 376 and n 1.

Alan’ddin, Sultan, 251 » 1.

Alau’ddin Ghorf, 341, 342, 345 » I, 3863 x.

Alau’ddin Majzib, Shaykh, 423.

Alaw’ddin Masatid Shah, 345, 346, 347 and n 2, 348,

Aléo’ddin Muhammad, Shaykh, 372.

Alan’l Hakk, Shaykh, 365, 371.

Alaya, 94.

Albania, 110 » 1.

Albano, 249 » 1.

Al Basra, 76 n.

Albert the Great, 30 » 1-

456 INDEX.

Almoravides, The, 55 2.

Almniiecar, 77 n.

Alp Arslan, 88 2.

Alp Khéa, 347 n 2.

Alramni, island of, 54 2.

Altmish, Shamsn’ddin, 342, $44, 345,

Albirdni, 26 » 1,28 1 2, 2921, 35 nn 2 and 3, 36 2 1, 87 7 1, 89 wn 1 and 8, 40 n1,-43 2 3,50 2, 105 21, 106, 107 », 109 2, 110% 1, 111 71, 116 » 2, 128, n 1, 226 n 8, 227 2, 282 71, 281 n 2, 294 2 1, 807 w 2, 818 w 1, 319 x 8, 820

n 2. : 868, 367. Albiran{’s Chronology, 17 » 2, 192 2, 22 Alukak, 1038. n 2, 4071. Al-Yamby, 57.

Albivdni’s India, 11 x 1, 122 2, 147 2, 1521,17 22, 18 » 1,19 2, 20 x 6, 21 1, 22 nn, 28 and 21, 25 wm 2 ana 8, 26 n 1, 282 2, 85 an 2 and 3, 867 1, 37 21,89 an and 8,43 n 3, 69 n, 105 2 1, 107 , 109, 11021, 111 2 1, 128 v1, 226 2 8. Amaya, 308 2 1.

Aleppo, 20 2 2, 752, 78 and n, 90 and », Ambélah, 70.

91 2. Ambastha, 116.

Alexander, 42, 78 », 79 n, 91 ”, 120 » 1, Ambasthas The, 115 n 2,

830, 331 and 7 1, 332 and x 2, 834, 835, Amid, 80, 92 2.

876 n, 377 and n 1, 392 and nl, 411 Amin, al, 826 and » 8.

nil, Amir Fathu’lah Shirdzi, 448. Alexandretta, 78 x. Amir Khasran, 251 » 1, 252. Alexandria, 24 2 2,68 n 1, 75 7. Amir Kalai, 358, 359 and x.

Améfllta, or Amintu, 49, Amfin, Shaykh, 375. Amanaska, 192 n 4, Amarkét, 59, 421 » 1. Amasia, 101 and x. Amévasa festival, 318.

Alfazari, 105 x 1. Amir Nasr, 407 » 1. Algeciras, 76 x. Amisus, 101 x. Algeria, 72 n. Amman, 63. Algiers, 59 x. Ammér, 356.

Alga, 346.

All, 350 » 2, 354, 859 2 4.

Alf Beg, 348.

Ali-b-Bakkér, 357.

Alf-b-Masatd-b-Mahmad, 34%.

Ali-b-Masé ar-Ridha, 86 n.

Alf Kharwé4, 397.

Alkasr-al Kabir, 76 7.

Allahabad, 32 x 3, 59 », 232.

Allahabdd, Sabah of, 59 ».

ANlains, 10] 2.

ANllski, 62, 57.

Allaki, mountain of, 62 2.

Almagest, The, 18 and » 1, 24 22 1 and 2, 48 and » 1, 422,

Almaksam, 47 2.

Almélik, 102.

Almds Beg, 347 and n.

Almeria, 77 and 2.

Ammonites, The, 63 ». Ammiriyyah, 95, Ammébad, 69.

Amnis lapidum, 77 n. Amol, 68 2.

Amorium, 95 n. Amrita, 286,

Amritt, The, 254, Amroha, 69 2, 848, Amul, 84, 85 2. Andhata, 245. Anaisvarya, 171, 180. Ananda, 160. Anandint, 258. Ananta-daréana, 191, Ananta-firdna, 191. Ananta-sukha, 191. Ananta-virya, 191. Angrablyddhtta, 168 n.

Anatolia, 101 2, 110 71.

Anavasthitatva, 181.

Anaximander, 37 » 1.

Anbér, 65.

Aneient Chronicle, The, 109 » 1.

Ancient Geography of India, Cunning- ham’s, 58 n, 69 2, 212 x.

Andaghast, 55.

Andak, 359 2 8.

Andaki, Khw4jah Hasan, 359.

Andalasia, 76, 95 x.

Ander&éb, 88.

Anderabah, n, 1.

Andes, The, 88 x 2.

Andhakdra, 154.

Andhra, 1, 102.

Angas, The, 208, 204 x, 205 2 1, 206 1. 224 and » 3,

Anghelion, The, 336 x 1.

Angiras, 310, :

Angiras code, The, 221.

Angiyd, 812,

Angora, 70 n, 95 x.

Angttht, 818,

Anhilpar, 69 ».

Animd, 187,

Anirnddha, 144 2 1, 165 n 3, 169 n, 176” 1,177 2.

Anka, 160.

Annesley Bay, 48 x.

Annuyogadvdram, The, 205 n 1.

Anquetil, 13 » 3.

Anéa, 249 n.

Ansfri, Khwijah Abdu’lah, 363.

Angdvatara, 284,

Ansin4, 56.

Antahkarana, 162.

Antakriddaéd, The, 204 and #.

Antara-dwipa, 193 2 1.

Antardya, 202 and x.

Antazakht, 102,

Antimerode, 42 2 1, 43 n 2.

Antinoe, 56 2.

Antinons, 56 2.

Antioch, 64 », 78 2, 90 7x.

Antiochus, n.

Anubhava, 188, 189.

INDEX. 457

Anida, islands, 105.

Anugraha, 173 2 4,

Anukila, 243.

Anuména, 129, 138 » 8, 151, 191.

• Anundsika, 228 n 1.

Anupalabdhi, 156,

Anusaydnd, 242,

Annushirwan, 1.

Anusvdra, 222, 223 » 1.

Anuttamdmbhas-tushfi, 176.

Anuttara, 194 2.

Anuttaropapdti Kadasdnga, The, 204 and 7.

Anvaya-vyatirekin, 144,

Anwar i Suhayli, The, 341,

Anwat, 314.

Apahasita, 240.

Apamea, 90.

Apdna, 149 n, 162.

Apanchtkrita, 161 and » 1.

Apardjita, 194 n.

Aparatva, 135.

Aparigraha, 184.

Apastamba, The, 221.

Apavarga, 129, 189.

Apocalypse, The, 33 » 1.

Apollinopolis Parva, 55 n.

Aprajd-pati, 198,

Apirva, 158 n.

Aque Tacapitanw, The, 71 n.

Arabia, 66 n, 109, 110 and #1, 120, 124 nm, 871, 424. .

Arabian Nights, The, 326 n 2.

Arabian Sea, The, 51 x.

Arabs, The, 18 23, 2921, 881, 89n 2,43 28, 48n, 52 n, 632, 89m, 109, 124 n, 212, 241, 326 n 6, 3865 n 2.

Arachosia, 68 x.

Aral sea, The, 103.

Arém Shéh, 342,

Aranhyaka, 289 » 2.

Aranyakasa, The, 222 # 1.

Aras, 191 and n 8.

Araxes, The, 81 7, 99 2.

Arba, 200.

Arbela, 80 7, 81 n.

Arbinah, 93.

458

Archelais, 95 n.

Archimedes, 26 and n 1.

Archons, 328 7 3.

Ardabil, 81, 82.

Ardeshir-b-Bibak, 67 n, 74, 75 n, 387.

Ardeshfr Darazdast, 329 n 1.

Ardeshir Khurrah, 74 n.

Ardhabdinda, 223

Ardhdwaj, The 255.

Ardiya, Mtn, 39 n 1.

Ardshir, 337.

Arghin, 83 n.

Arhas, The, 192 » 1.

Arhat (or Arhant), 188 and 7 1.

Arhat (Buddha), 211 » 1.

Arbat doctrines, The, 202 n.

Ariana, 110 7 1.

Ariavarta, 32 » 3, 33.

Arim, imundation of, 79 ,

Arim or Arym, 30 n 1.

Arin or Azin, 29 1 1, 59 n.

Arish, 63.

Aristarchus, 224 n.

Aristophanes, 11 7 1, 16 » 3.

Aristotle, 12” 8, 141, 20, 371, 106 n1, 107 n, 126, 143 n 3, 151 n, 161 » 180 x.

Arjish, 80.

Arjuna, 227 n 1, 392 n 2.

Armant, 60,

Armenia, 78, 79, 80 and n, 82 n, 95 and n, 400, 110 1.

Armenia, Little, 78 7, 95 n.

Armorica, 104 1,

Arphaxad, 375 and n 2.

Arrajén, 65 and n, 90 %, 359 2.

Arran, 81, 83, 95 and n, 36, 99.

Arrian, 78 n, 96 n, 304 n 7, 831 n 1, 332 nn 1 and 2.

Arrow river, The, 304 5.

Arsene, 8) n.

Arsha, 307.

Arsha marriage, 309 and n 2, 349 n 1.

Artan Kaloran, 102.

Artang or Arzhang, The, 237 and » 1.

Artaxerxes Longimanns, 229 n 1,

Artha, 129 and # 1, 132.

INDEX.

Arthdpatti, 138 n 8, 156 and n 4.

Artha-Sdstra, The, 225.

Arthavéda, 158 ». 219 and n 1.

Arvéksrotas, 173 nn 8 and 4.

Arya, 19221.

Aryabhata, 12 » 2.

Aryan Languages, Comparative Gram- mar of, 120 n.

Aryans, The, 1147 1.

Arya-satya, 214,

Arzan, 79 n, 95 n.

Arzan u’r Rim, 79 1, 95, 96 n.

Arzandrim, 96,

Arzanjain, 95.

As, The, country, 102.

Asadi, 328 and n 1.

Asafi, 61.

Asamavdyt Kérana, 143.

Asamjiia, 197.

Asamprajidta-samddhi, 182, 183.

Asana, 183, 185.

Asatpratipakshatva, 144 and n 1.

Aéaya, 181 and x 1.

Ascalon, 64 2.

Asfapir, 96 n.

Asfaras, 94 n.

Ashkbar, Mauléné Muhyi’ddin, 422,

Ashmim, 56 n.

Ashmin, 56 2.

Ashraf-i-Ashréf, 428.

Ashrafs, The, 428.

Asht, 102.

Ashtdnga-Yoga, 183.

Ashwatthémé, 159.

Asia, 109 and n 2, 110 and n 1, 123 n 1.

Asia Major, 110 and n 1.

Asia Minor, 78 and n, 90 n, 94, 95, 99 7 100 2, 102 1047, 110 andn1, 120” 1,124, 369.21.

Asiatic Researches, The, 11 72, 1674 22 n 1, 28 n2, 86 n2, 191 73, 192%], 304 n &.

Askaléof, al, 361 and n, 424 and » 1.

Askar Mukram, 66.

Asmdn, 14,

Asmita, 181, 183.

Asnit, 102,

INDEX.

Afgoka, 318 n 8.

Asokdshtamt festival, 318.

Arama, 272.

Asrava, 202 and n 1 and 2, 203.

Assam, 48 2, 121 » 8.

Assousn, 52 2, 53 1, 56 2.

Assyria, 110 n 1, 328 » 2,

‘Assyrians, The, 328 » 8.

Astarfibad, 84 n, 85, 343 » 3, 359 n 8.

Astarte, Syrian Goddess, 79 7.

Asteya, 184,

Astikdya, 201 n 2.

Astrakhan, 96 2, 101 , 108 n.

Astronomy of the Ancients, Lewis’, 167 8, 25 2 3, 3821, 39 v8.

Asura marriage, 809.

Asuras, The, 193 » 2, 287 2, 306 and n 5, 809 and n 4.

Asuri, 169 x.

Ava, 286.

Afvamedha, or horse-sacrifice, 281.

Aid, 858.

At& Yasawi, 358,

Atak Benares, 69.

Atala, 82.

Atéu’ddin of Bukhéra, 367.

Atbéra Vidyé, The, 218.

Atharvan, 219 7 1.

Atharvaveda, The, 116, 128, 219 and nl.

Atheniyah, 78.

Athens, 101 n, 328 n 3.

Atthastta, 240 n 4,

Atikrdnta bhdvantya, 183.

Atkinson, 327 2 1, 830 n.

Atlantic, The, 34 and ” 1, 43 n 8, 46, 76.

Atlas du Voyage, Chardin’s, 38 n 2.

Atman, 129, 182, 154, 159, 169, 170 and a1, 171, 190, 215 and » 2.

Atrabulus, 62.

Atri, 117, 310.

Atri, The, 221.

Atrat, 327 » 1.

Attér, Faridu’ddin, 351 2.

Atwal, Kitébu’l, 47 2, 48 2, 60 n, 51 2, 52 2, 53 n, 56 2, 57 n, 59 7, 75 n, 82 2, 84 n, 85 n, 90 n, 91 n, 92 n, 93 x.

Atyantika dissolution, 165.

Audava, 248 and n 2.

Aadmiyyah, 90.

Anfat, 47 2.

Augusta Emerita, 76 2. Augustine, St., 336 al. Anugastus, 76 n.

Aujan, 81. Aurnikakalpa, 208 n 3. Anfanasa, The, 220, Aus&t, The, 428. Avadhi-jrdna, 190. Avagraha, 190.

Ayah, 84 2.

Avaha, 17,

Avantiké, 305. Avantyas, The, 290 2 1. Avdpa, 158 n. Avarana-éaktt, 160.

459

Avasarpini age, The, 188 rn 1, 191» 3.

Avatéras, The, 284, 293. Avdya, 190.

Avayava, 129, 143, 144 2. Aves, The, 11 7 1. Avicenna, 106, 107, 421 » 4. Avidyd, 140 n 2, 160, 181. Avienus, 34 1 1, 64”, 77 1. Avirdga, 171, 180.

Avirati, 181.

Awadh, 59, 305.

Awaj, The, 255, 257

Awél, island of, 58. Awilah, 60.

Atoliyd, 350,

Axum, 47 2.

Ayas, 78, 90.

Ayatanas, The, 214. Ayesha, 391 x.

Ayodhy&, 117 » 4, 287, 291, 305.

Ayogava, 116. Ayogavas, 115 2.

Ayur-veda, The, 224, 286 xn 3.

Ayus, 201, Ayushka, 202 n. Azadhwar, 91 2. Azak, 108 and n. Azar, 343 » 1,

460 : INDEX.

Azarbijén, 80 and », 81 and a, 82, 83 and 7, 95 n, 862 n 2. Z.

Azdi, al, 407 1 1.

Azizi, 66 n, 82 x.

Azof, 103 x.

Azof, Sea of, 101.

ms Azores, The, 33 n 1. Azra&t of Damascns, 72.

Azréfl, 325 and n 1.

Bias 378 2 2,

Baalbak, 64, 73 2, 278 n 1, 377.

Bab, 858 n 2.

Bab Arstén, 358.

B&b Farghénf, 358 n 2.

Babé Ishak Maghrabf, 371.

‘Babé Kamél Jandi, 356.

Babé Nizém Abdal, 374,

Babé Ratn, Shaykh, 360, 361 ».

B&bé Samméaf, 358, 359 and a.

Babak, 67 n, 74 n, 75 2.

Baber, 16, 98 7, 349,

Bébil, 65.

Baba’l Abwab, 95 n, 96,

B&bu’l Hadid, 95, 96 n.

Babylon, 29 ~ 1, 64 2, 65 n, 120 ~ 1, 828, 387 n.

Babylonia, 110 ” 1.

Bacon, Roger, 30 » 1.

Bacon’s Essays, 87 » 1.

Bactria, 42.

Bactriana, 99 , 110 » 1.

Badaghis, 87.

Badajos, 100 n.

Badakshén, The, 88 », 97.

Badaksh&n, 88 and n, 89.

Badéon, 845 n 1, 865, 367, 369.

Badéoni, 845 n 1, 360 n 2, 875 2, 44021.

Badarfiyana, 159 x.

Badari-Néréyana, 226, 307 nz 2 and 8.

Bdddvard, 81421.

Baddiri, 307.

Badgijara, The, 118.

Badhtta, 144.” 2.

Badhni, Shaykh Sufi, 366,

Bddt, 249 n.

Badri N&th, 307 n 8, 226 n 2. Badrn’ddin Ghaznavi, Shaykh, 864, 368. Badra’ddin Ishik, Shaykh, 868. Badro’ddin Salayman, 372.

Badwinal, mountain, 28.

Baéza, 100 n.

Bafd, 67.

. Bagh, 87 x.

Baghdéd, 27, 65 and 2, 72 n, 73 n, 76 , 81 », 351, 352, 358 and n 1, 354, 356, 857, 362 » 1, 363, 8367, 395 2, 407 » 1, 419,

Baghlén, 88 n.

B&ghphat, 69.

Baghrah, 70.

Baghrés, 78.

Baghshir, 87, 352 » 3.

Bagrém, 846.

Bahddur Shah of Gnjardt, 374.

Bahddur, Saltén, 251 » 1.

Bahéu’ddin Nakshbandf, Khwéjah, 359 n 3, 860.

Bahhéth, al, 865.

Bahman, 829, 329, 7 and n 1, 830, 337.

‘ Behmanébéd, 331 n 1.

Bahnasa, 63.

Bahrém, 62 n.

Babrém Gor, 62 , 337, 838 and 7 1, 340, Bahram Shah, 841 and 7 1. Bahrein, 57, 58 and n. Bahrein, Galf of, 58 x. Bahrein, Sea of, 58.

Béhu, 318.

B&éhudé, The, 304. Bahu-ript, The, 258. Baibhéar, 212 x.

Baidé, 74 and n.

Baihak, 85 x.

Baihaki, Abu’l Kasim al, 85 x, Baikand, 89 n, 97. Bailakén, 96.

Bairéth, 33,

Baisén, 64, 825 » 1.

Baisar, 75 x.

Baito’l Mukaddas, 63. Bajnah, 104.

Bakharz, 867 n 1.

INDEX. 461

Bakharzi, Shaykh Sayfa’ddia, 356, 367, Bakhtyér Khilji, 345 2 3.

Bakil, 53.

Bakil, clan of, 53 n.

Bakir, Muhammad al, 359 n 4, 360. Bakkal, Khwajah Hasan Shéh, 422. Bakkdls, The, 118.

Bakkam, 48 and 2.

Baksh{, Nizimn’ddin, 862 2 8.

Bakshi, 251 and x 1.

Baka, 96 m.

Balad, 80 n.

Baladevas, The, 197, 198 n.

Balahbad, 81 n.

Balanjar, 101, 102.

Balansia, 90.

Balarima, 166 » 8.

Baléséghan, 88.

Balasgoun, 88 n.

Balban, Ghiyfsu’ddin, 342, 846 and » 1. Balt, 318,

Bali, 159 and », 289 and x, 820 and x 2, Balif, 897.

Balinds, 336.

Balirdjya festival, 320.

Balisé, 8397 n 2.

Balké, 68.

Balkh, 3, 48 n 8, 87 n, 88 and a, 93 n,

829 n, 349, 852, 357, 361 2 1, 370. Ballantyne, Dr., 186 n, 189” 2, 178 and x 3.

Balnfa, 73.

Balraghdémis, 77.

Baluchistan, 68 n, 119.

Bdluka-prabhd, 195 n 8.

Balyéa, 875.

Baizam, 78.

Bam, 67, 78.

Bambyce, 79 n.

Bamifn, 8 “ Bamiin, 87 2.

Banékati, 1,212.

Bénérasi, 1882n 1.

Banat u’n Naash, 39.

Banbalunah, 101.

Bandha, 173, 202 and n 2.

Bandnah, Fort of, 69.

• §9

Banerjea, Dr., 169 n, 217 n 1. Banerjea’s Dialogues, 151 ». Banganga, The, 304. Bangash, 70 and n. Bangula, 252.

Bani Kaileh, 64 2.

Bani’l Marak, 64 n.

Bani Najah, The, 53 x. Bani Tamim, 88 x.

Banik Vaisyas, 118.

Baniki, 91 ».

Banjhir, 89.

Ban-mdnus, The, 120.

Bépu Deva, 19 2 8, 21 n, 36 2, Baradén, 65.

Barahi fish, 296, 297 n. Barakah, 108 and x.

Bérém, 60.

Baran, 69.

Barbara, 144 n.

Barbary, 110.

Barbera, 48.

Barbier de Meynard, 61 ». Bérbud, 314 n 1.

Barcelona, 93 n.

Bardah, 95 and n. Bardashir 67 2.

-Bardsir, 67.

Barghadema, 77 1.

Bari, 251.

Barisa, 49 and n.

Barkadir, 87 x.

Barkah, 62 and n.

Barkanyah, 104,

Barki, Khwdjah Abdallah, 359.

Barkiarok, 343 n 1.

Barni, 347 nv 2 and 8, 348 » 1.

Baronius, 336 » 1,

Barrow, Mr. Reuben, 19 nx 1 and 4, 27 nn 1, 2 and 8.

Bars Birt, 78.

Barth, Mr., 177 » 1, 185 », 188 » 1, 189 n.

Bérdsf, Salm-b-Husayn, 851.

Barzawaih, 1. ve Barzé, 330, =

Baad of Fars, 73.

462

Basdsiri, al, 73 2.

Basrah, 59 a, 60 n, 64 n, 65 and n, 82 n, 351, 355 n 1, 357.

Bassein, 53 n.

Bast, 68 n.

Bésyan, 90 n.

Batavia, 119 n 1.

Bath, Adelard de, 30 1.

Batik, 108.

Bato Marrab, 60 and n.

Batwah, 372.

Baudhéyana, The, 221.

Baan, 87 n.

Baward, 357.

Baya, The, 122,

Bayab, 110.

Bayazid Bistémi, 359.

Bayley’s Hist. of Gujarat, 251 » 1.

Bayram Khan, 397 and n 8, 425 n 2.

Bayrit, 78.

Bayzé, 354.

Baztkar, The, 258.

Bdstdband, 318.

Beale, 352 8, 3538 n, 86571, 36401, 369 n 4, 407 n 1.

Beames, Mr., 120 n.

Bear, The, 39 2.

Behar, 120 n, 211, 803 x 3, 370.

Beja, 49 and #, 50 n, 52 n, 62 n, 94 n.

Belazuri, 77 n.

Beled el Jarfd, 72 n.

Benares, 3, 59, 211, 304, 305 and n 4,

Bengal, 59, 119 and » 1, 120, 121 n 2, 122

m1, 252, 324, 328, $45 and n 8, 365 and _

a1, 866, 425 n 2, Bengali, 120 n. Bentley, 11 » 2, Benu Rustam, The, 62 ». Berber country, The, 49, 50 n. Berbers, The, 110, Berkeley, 167 2, 1707 3. Berlin, 24 7 2. Bersabee, 378 1, Besa, 56 ». Bésar, 318. Beth San, 64. Beth Shemesh, 74 x.

INDEX,

BhadréSva, 31 » 1,

BhadrdSva-khanda, $1.

Bhadrévati, 285.

Bhdga, 146.

Bhagatiya, The, 257,

Bhagavad Gité, The, 170 1, 178 », 218 n, 227 n 1.

Bhégavat, 166 n 3.

Bhagavat (Buddha), 211 » 1.

Bhagavata, The, 288 2 1, 289 2 1.

Bhégavata Purdga, The, 220 and n 4.

Bhégavata Upa-purdna, The, 220.

Bhégavati, The, 202 n 1, 206 and » 1,

Bhagavatydnga, The, 204 and n.

Bhagel-Khand, 290 » 1,

Bhigvata sect, The, 165 n 3.

Bhdgya-tushti, 176.

Bhairava, 250 n 6.

Bhatrava, 249, 250.

Bhdjaka, 25.

Bhénd, The, 257.

Bhdnk, 318,

Bhani, 251 and » 1.

Bhanvayya, The, 257.

Bharadvéja, 289 and n 1, 310 and x 2.

Bhérata, 30, 192 n 1, 294 7 1.

Bharata, Raja, 197.

Bharata-Kénd@a, 192 2 1.

Bhirata-khanda, 80, 31, 82.

Bhiérgava Paréna, The, 2202 4.

Bh&sh& Parichcheda, The, 1382 n 2, 185 n 2, 143 2 1, 151 n 2.

Bhéshya, 149.

Bhatia, The, 118,

Bhatta, 152 n 1, 153, 154, 155, 156, 159.

Bhava-bhiti, 241 7 1.

Bhavana-pati, 193, 198, 199.

Bhdvané Sanskdra, 185 n 2, 136, 188, 140.

Bhdvant, 253.

Bhavapratyaya, 183.

Bhavishya-parvan, The, 280 n 2.

Bhavishya Parana, The, 220, 821 n 2,

Bhaya, 802.

Bhaydnaka, 241.

Bheda, 160.

Bherab, 69.

INDEX. 463

Bhikshu, The, 282 and 2 3, 214 1 1, 216 2 1. Bhikshuka, The, 270 » 1. Bhilsa, 59. Bhima, 217 2 1, 819 2. Bhima, The, 304. BhtmaikddaS festival, 319 2. Bhimarathi, The, 304. Bhoja, 135 » 2. Bhranti-daréana, 181. Bhrigu, 220 w 4, 225 x 1. Bhagwan, 251 w 1.

‘Bhimah, 70. re

Bhémi, 179,

Bhar, 264 n 2. Bhir-loka, 32. Bhiita, 178.0 4,

• Blittadi ahankdra, 171, Bhitas, Tho, 198 » 2, Blitéa-vidya, 225 n Bhivdgu, 17. Bhayay, 164 a 2. Biéh, The, 308, 346. Biinah, 427 » 3. Bibhatsa, 241.

Biblo, reforonces to the, 68 v, 64 2, 72 n,° 94 2, 79 2, 90 2, 875 » 2, 378 » 2. = Bichhuvah, 313, Bidélaka Brahmans, 116, 117 and » 1. | Biddydé-pat, 252. Bidlis, 96 n. Bigandet, Bishop, 211 an 1 and 2. Bihat, The, 308. Bijah, 62. Bijdyah, 90. — Bik&a, a), 64 #. Bikramijit, 251 # 1. Bilora, 196 a 2. Biménshahr, 83, | Bindult, 822. Bipat, 16. Birkat Yasin, 108 x. Birptr, 878, 374. Biran, 88, Bieerta, 94.0. Bishn-pad songs, 252 and 1. Bighr al afi, 353, 356.

Bishdtan, 449 2» 2.

Biskarah, 59, 61, 62 2.

Bistém, 85 and n, 852, 859°» 3.

Biswah, 125.

Bifduah, 67 2.

Biyér, 85.

Biza, 102.

Black sea, The, 70 1.

Blochmann, 251 » 1, 252 nu, 318 » 2, 814 n 2, 875 2, 421 n 1, 423 » 2, 427 wn 2 and 8, 442 2 1, 447 0 3, 449 ni.

Blaundevile’s Exercises, 37 1 1.

Blyth, My., 122 2 2,

Bochart, 109 » 1.

Bodhi-satéva, 222 4 1.

Boissier, 128 x 1.

Bolgér-aljadid, 303 2.

Bologna, 38 2 2.

Bombay, 51 n.

Bona, 77 n, 9+ 2.

Bone, 62 n.

Bér, 104.

Bordeaux, 10] 2.

Borjans, Tho, 101 2. ¢

Borneo, 48 x.

Borsh&n, 101, 102.

Borysthenes, Pao, 94 n, 102 2.

Bosporus, The, 94 2.

Bost, 68 1.

Bongie, 90 n.

Brahma, 8, 10 x 2, 11 and « 1, 118, 114, 117, 128, 146, 147 and nn 1 and 2, 148 and n 2, 149, 151 a, 158, 155 2 2, 160, 161, 168 2 1, 164 n 2, 166 and x 3, 166 21, 168.2 4,170n3, 172 and on land 8, 178 nn 1 and 4, 174 2 4, 185», 211

2, 289, 220, 227 n 2, 282» 8, 245, 282,

287, 288, 289, 291 and x 2, 292, 308, 806 2 5, 307 » 3.

Brahma Pardna, Tho, 220.

Brahmachéarin, 226 2 1,

Brahmachdrin, 275.

Brahmacharya, The, 210 2 1.

Brahma-charya, 272, 276.

Brahmacharya (continence), 184.

Brahma Granthi, 245 n 1.

464

Brahmagupta, 17 n 2, 23, 25 nn 2 and 8 28 x 2.

Brahman, 160, 184 ».

Brahmuana, 114,

Brahmana Sarvasva, The, 2747 1.

Brahmans, The, 8, 115, 116 and n 4, 127, 157 n 1, 174, 189 n, 208 n 1, 210 and n 1,212, 217 n 1, 218, 222 n 2, 228, 226, 228, 229 and nm 1, 280, 231, 238 » 3, 239, 262, 264, 266, 267, 268, 269, 270, 271 and n 1, 272 and v1, 273, 275, 276, 277, 279, 288, 284, 294 n 3, 296, 297 and n 2, 298, 300, 301, 302 and n 4, 308, 309 and nn 3 and 4, 310 and 7 2,316 and 7 1, 319 and n 2, 320 n 8, 821, 823, 824, 330, 332, 331, n and n 1, 332, 334, 886, 338.

Brahmdnd, The, or Egg of Brahmé, 11 andn 1.

Brahmdnda-ddna, 282.

Brahmianda Pordna, The, 220.

Brahm&nda Upa-purana, The, 220.

Brahmaputra, The, 303 » 3.

Brahmarshi, 32 n 3, 83,

Brahmé Sanatkuméra, 194 n.

Brahma-vaivarta Parana, The, 220.

Brahmavarta, 32 n 8, 33, 286.

Brdlunya, 172.

Bréhmya marriage, 307.

Brajbihér, 252 x.

Bretagne, 105 n.

Briggs, 345 n 1, 346 nn 3 and 4, 347 n, 348 wn 1 and 2, 362 n 3.

Brihaspati, 218 7 1.

Britain, Great, 105.

Britain, Leaser, 105.

Brittany, 104 2.

Broach, 52 n, 59, 289 7.

Brothers, The, 57 x.

Brusa, 100 n.

Bachananz, Dr., 192 n 1.

Budan, Islands of, 104.

Budha, 117.

Baddha, 15271, 169 n, 17771, 178 n, 188 71, 189 », 197 21, 20572, 211 and nm 1 and 2, 212” and nn 1 and 2, 213 n1,214”1, 21621, 292 and a1.

INDEX.

Buddhavatara, The, 292.

Buddhi, 129; 185, 188 and # 2, 189 1, 140 n 1, 162, 163, 170, 171, 178 2 38.

Buddhism, 152 2 1, 168” 1, 188 n 1, 200 n 7, 211, 214 n 3.

Baddhist Synod, The first, 212 n.

Buddhists, The, 188 n 2, 151”, 169 n, 178 mn 3,188 n 1, 189 n, 202 2, 205 n 2,211 272, 213 1.215 n 2.216 and n 1, 269 n 1, 293, 805 2 4, 387 » 1.

Bugie, 62 2.

Bukhara, 54 2, 92 n, 97 and n,-357, 358 n3, 359 nn 2 and 3, 361 7 1, 867, 368. 374, 420.

Bukhéri, Sayyid Mahmiad, 869.

Bukka Raya, 189 n,

Balér, 108 and n.

Buldarah, 50,

Bulgaria, 102.

Bulgarians, The, 101 n.

Bulghér, 103 and n, 104.

Baran, 65 n.

Bardél, 101.

Bargess, Dr., 19 n 8, 52 2.

B&rghang4, The, 287 n 2.

Borhén-i-K4ti’, The, 89, 104 n, 342 n 4.

Burhénpir, 304,

Barhi Rapti, The, 304 x &.

Barmatg, The, 292 » 1.

Burnell, 32 » 8, 115 wm 1 and 2, 116 a I, 261, 295 n 1, 309 nn 1 and 2,

Burnonf, 169 n, 202 n.

Bardjird, 83.

Bushang, 87.

Bust, 68 and n.

Buwaih, Adhudo’d Dawlah, 25 n 1,74 n.

Buwayh, House of, 25 » 1, 407 and ni.

Bawayh, the Daylamite, 407 n 1.

Buzantya, 101.

Buzjan, 86.

Buzarj-Mihr, 1, 340 n.

——Barzfyah, 338 and n 2, 339 and » 1.—

Bydsam, diameter, 25,

Byjoo, 251 71,

Bythinia, 100 n.

Cie Wn.

Cabes, Gulf of, 61 2, 71 n.

Cabra, 100 n.

Cadesia, 72 n.

Cadiz, Isle of, 93.

Coosaren, 63 n, 95 n.

Casares Phillipi, 78 2.

Cwsarion, 60 n.

Caggar, The, 33 2.

Cairo, 61 n, 62 n, 63 n, 74 n, 424.

Caiyon, 98 n.

Calanus, 332 » 2.

Calcutta, 123 2 1.

Calcutta Museum, The, 211 n 2.

Calcutta Review, The, 246 2, 249 2.

Cambala, 52 x.

Cambay, 59.

Cambridge, 409 n 2.

Camestres, 144 n.

Camp of Mukram, 66 n.

Canarese Language, The, 189 ».

Cannria, 33 » 1.

Canary Islands, The, 33 n 1, 53 n. °

Cancadora, 29 n 1. e

Canon, Alfazéri’s, 105 » 1. :

Canon, Avicenna’s, 422 n.

Canopus, 39 » 2,

Caniterbery Tales, The, 107 n.

Cape de Verde, The, 33 x 1.

Cape Raptum 43 n 2.

Cappadocia, Kings of, 95 n.

Capricornus, 13 x 3.

Caracalla, 56 7.

Carey, 248 x 3.

Carmania, 78 n.

Carmel, Mount, 378 n 1.

Carnatic, The, 252.

Carthage, 328 n 3.

Caryate Jews, 103 zn.

Caspian, The, 83 2, 86 n, 96 and 7, 103, 353 n 3,

Castile, 100 n. :

Categories of the Nydéya, The, 132 n 2, 135 n 2, 150 7 1.

Cancasas, The, 96 n, 101 n.

Cauasin de Perceval, 73 n.

INDEX. 465

Centra} India, 290 » 1.

Conta, 76 n.

Ceylon, 7, 48 and n, 54 n, 214” 8,216 » 1, 325,

Chadir Dagh, 103 n.

Chahat, 70.

Chaitya, 215.

Chakravartis, The, 197, 198 n.

Chalcedon, 78 n,

Chaldzans, The, 13 7 3.

Chaldi, 347 » 1.

Chamars, The, 316 x 1.

Champakalt, 813.

Chandais, The, 294, 295, 802.

Chanddia, 116.

Chandala Brahmans, 116, 117.

Chandas, 224 and x 2.

Chandéri, 365.

Chandniwat, 69.

Chandrabhéga, The, 303.

Chandra-mani, 286.

Chandra-nddi, 288 and n 1, 234, 235, 236, 237.

Chandréwats, The, 118.

Chandrdyana fast, The, 227 and n 8, 228, 231, 278, 299,

Changis Khfn, 343, 344 and n 4, 345, 3.46, 348.

Charama Tirthakrit, 188 » 1.

Charana, 187 and n 4.

Chardin, 38 n 2. :

Charmanvati, The, 304.

Charm-kdr, The, 315 and n 2,

Charthéwal, 70.

Chiarvaka, 217 and » L.

Chafak, Tho, 121 7 5.

Chattd 116.

Chatur-anuka, 148.

Chaturdaéa festival, 318.

Chaturda&t festival, 318.

Chaturtht festival, 318.

Chaacer, 107 n.

Chaudah-pirvdnga, The, 206.

Chanhéns, The, 118.

Chaupar, 300 and n 2,:

Ghedda-grantha, The, 205.

Chedda-Sdtrag, The, 205 and » 1.

466

Chem, 65 n.

Chemnis, 55 n.

Chenéb, The, 303,

Chenery’s a} Hariri, 50 2, 57 2.

Chhala, 129, 146.

Chhand Songs, 252 and n 2,

Chhandas, 263 n 2.

Chhudr-Khanfikd, 318.

Chiktrsha, 149.

Childers, 214 2 8.

Chin, 7 71.

China, 7, 48 n, 49 and n, 52 and 7, 60, 73 and n, 92 7, 98 and n, 102, 109, 110 and 7 1, 216 2 1, 827 2 1, 328, 336 » 1, 887,

Chind, 252.

Chinese, The, 108, 292 2 1.

Chinnapattanam, 60and”,

Chiragh i Dihli, 365, 368, 369, 372.

Chisht, 357.

Chisht family, The, 369, 370.

Chishti, Khwajah Myinn’ddin Hasan, 361.

Chishti, Khw4jah Othman, 861.

Chishti order, The, 354, 422.

Chitor, 347.

Chitrini, 243.

Chitta, 162, 163, 178 and n 8, 215 » 2.

Chittagong, 121 x 8.

Chrest. Arab., De: Sacy’s, 47 », 627, 91 x.

Christians, The, 127.

Chronology of Pathan Kings, 869 n 4.

Chronology, Aibirini’s, 17 n 2, 197” 2, 22 2 2, 4071,

Chuli Maheswar, 290 ” 1.

Chir, 318.

Chird, 818.

Chirfr, 818 and n 4,

Chutkala, 252 and a.

Cicero, 822 n 4,

Cilicia, 94 2.

Cintra, 100 x.

Circesinm, 79 n.

City of brass, 99 x.

Clarke, Mr. C. D., 246 2.

Clags., Dict. of Hind. Myth,, 159 n.

Cleopatra, 60 2.

INDEX.

Clepsydra, The, 16 and x 3.

Climate, 43 and » 2, 44.

Clysma, 53 n.

Coslesyria, 64 x.

Cosur de Lion, 347 n 2.

Coft, 60 2.

Colchbis, 110 2 1.

Colebrooke, 1 2 2, 129 mm 1 and 2, 133 nv 8, 184 n, 135 n, 187 2 1, 138 » 4, 189 nam Lard 2, 1612, 152 21, 156 7 8, 161 ~ 2, 163 n, 165 2 8, 168 n 1, 169 » and 71, 17071, 2 and 8, 171” 1, 174 n, 175 wn 2 and 4, 176 n 2, 178 2 2, 179 n1, 18821, 189 n, 192 2 and n 1, 193 2 1, 195 271 and 8, 197 2 8, 201 » and nn 1 and 4, 202 » and 2 2, 210 ~ 2, 214 n 8, 215 n 2, 21771, 219 21, 2212 1.

Colebrooke’s Essays, 129 n 2, 185 n, 151 2, 163 n, 159 n, 188 n 1, 195 n 38, 212 » 1.

Coleridge, 167 x.

Columbine ginger, 51 x,

Commagene, 95 n.

Comorin, Cape, 48 n.

Conjevaram, 305.

Constantine, 56 n, 62 n.

Constantine, Province of, 50 2, 77 n.

Constantinople, 70 n, 78 n, 95, 101 and n.

Cooley, Mr., 47 n, 65 x.

Copts, The, 66 n, 110.

Coracesium, 94 2.

Cordova, 76 n, 102.

Corea, The, 49 2, 98 2.

Coromandel, The, 61 7, 289 1, 284 2 1.

Cosmos, Humboldt’s, 1521, 228, 24 wm Land 2, 29 »1, 87 n1, 88 nn2 and 8.

Cossacks, The, 102 7.

Cowell, Prof., 183 » 8, 189 » 2, 153, 158 n, 159 n, 169 nl, 21221, 214” 3, 217 nl, 21971.

Cow’s meat prohibited, 294 7 1.

Cremona, 80 7 1.

Crete, 77 n.

Crimea, 101 », 102 2, 103 and n, 104 n.

Crusades, The,396 » 1.

Csoma’s Tibetan Grammar, 212 » 1.

Ctesiphon, 65 n, 96 n, 326 nb.

INDEX, 467

Cunningham, General, 212 , $31 » 1. Onunningham’a Ane. Geog., 58 n, 212 x, Cupola of the earth, 104.

Cust’s Modern Languages of Africa, 58 2. Cutch, 68 x.

Cypras, 77 x,

Cyrenaica, Mountains of, 62 x.

Cyrene, 62 2.

Cyrus, 3380, 411 2 1, 423 n 2.

Desa, 229 and 7 1. Ddbha grass, 800 and x 1.

Dabit, 82 2. ss

D&bilishim, 326 » 4.

Dabistén, 887 nn 1.

Daf, The, 255 and n 7, 266, 267.

Dafzan, The, 257.

Daghestén, 101 ».

Dahadi, ad, 861 n.

Dahlak, Island of, 50.

Dahna, 75 2.

Daibal, 58.

Dailam, 84 and 2.

Dailamfan, 84.

Dainandina, dissolution, 164.

‘3 pralaya, 1657 1.

Dainawar, 82, 396 » 1.

Daityas, The, 11, 159 , 287, 288, 289 290, 292, 806, 320 » 2.

Daiva marriage, 808, 309 n 1.

Daivata, The, 224 n.

Dakkhin, 110.

Daksha, 227 2 2, 238 n 8.

Daksha smriti, The, 221.

Dakshina, 113.

Dakshina, 178.

Dakskina lover, 248.

Dalman, 59,

Daloo, 251 n 1.

Dalaikah, Queen, 55 2.

Damér, 50, 53 2. -

Dimaghén, 84,

Damascus, 56 7, 64, 72 and x, 73 n, 90 n, 854,

Damietta, 68 2, 421 » 3.

Damindan, 74.

Damiri, ad, $91 1».

Dna, or Alms giving, 282.

Déna-siddhs, 176.

Dandiyé, 812.

Dandamis, 832 » and x 1.

Dandénkén, 87.

Danda-vat prostration, 280.

Daniel, The prophet, 877 n 1.

Danube, The, 102 n.

Dénya, 93.

Dényél, Ahmad, 365.

Daoutmour Khén, 845 » 1.

D&r Safed, 74 x.

Daré, 73, 75 2.

Darab, 67 n.

Dérdbjird, 67, 423 n 2.

Darah, 54 n, 55, 71 2.

Darah, The, 55 7.

Darband, 83 n, 95 », 96 n, 98 », 101 and n, 377 2 1.

Daren Mts., The, 70 x.

Darghén, 97.

Darius, 67 n, 78 7.

Darius Hystaspes, 328 n 4.

Darkalah, 49.

Darr4j, Abi Husayn, 354.

Darsdna-varantya, 201, 202 x.

Darzindan, 96 n.

Daéa-hara (Dusserah), 318 and a 6, 319.

Daéami festival, 318,

Dasaratha, Rajé, 291.

Dasht, 84 and x.

Daskarah, 75, 362 7 1.

D&thavanisa, The, 168 » 1.

Daéiid Khan, 847 n.

Déid Tai, 356.

Danalatébfid, 59.

Daurék, 66 », 90.

David, 63 2.

Davies, 159 n, 160 » 2, 168271, 169 » 3, 170 21,1712 1,178 x1, 227 21.

Davies’ Hindu Philosophy, 129 x 1, 182 ma Land 2, 188 nn 1 and 2, 184 2, 186 n 2,188 nn 2 and 8, 18921, 140% 1, 141 » 1,142 72, 143 2 2, 148» 1, 149 nm, 161 n, 1562271,

Davis, Samnel, 86 n 2.

468

• Dawwan, 422 » 1.

Day, Captain, 246 n, 250 » 18, 253 2, 254 nand n 2, 255 wr 1, 2,5 and 7, 256 18.

Day’s Fishes of India, 296 n 4.

Daybal, 52 2.

De Gnignea, 88 n, 96 7, 343 28, 344 nn 4 and 5, 345 » 1, 846 7 4.

De Reb. Indicis, 52 », 77 n.

De Sacy, 39 n 2, 47 7, 62 2, 91 n, $41 2

1, 350 » 2,

De Slane, 68 n, 80 », 96 n, 100 2, 101 n.

Debal, 58 n.

Decapolis, The, 64 2.

Deccan, The, 32 8, 189 ~. See also Dekhan, The.

Decline and Fall, Gibbon’s, 66 x.

Defhna, 69.

Dekhan, The, 250, 251 7 1, 252, 258, 284, 804, 805, 365, 372.

Delhi, 69, 119, 200, 251 ~ 1, 252, 257, 822 n 4, 342, 344, 345, 847, 848, 349, 861 n, 362, 363, 364, 865 and x1, 366, $67, 868, 869, 370, 871, 372, 873, 374, 375, 425 n 2, 426 n 2, 440,

Delphi, 36 x 2.

Demavend, 84 n.

Denia, 93 n, 100 »,

Deoband, 70.

Deogir, 59.

Deoras, The, 118.

Dera Ghazi Khan, 69.

Derbend, 83 7.

Defa, 200.

Desakara, 250.

Defi Songs, 251.

Desubah, 69.

Doucalion, deluge of, 94 x.

Devs, The, 327 » 1.

Dev Mahal, 366,

Devas The, 308.

Deva Brahmans, 116.

Deva holy places, 803.

Deva-pijd, 277.

Devaki, 292.

Devatd, 172.

Devatis, The, 11, 115, 193, 198, 199, 227, 306.

INDEX.

Devatideva, 211 » 1. Devband, 327 and x 1. -

‘Devi, 319 x.

Devi Bhégavata, The, 220 n 4.

Deviké (Deva), The, 804,

Dhadda, The, 255, 256.

Dhadht women, 257,

Dhddhts, The, 256,

Dhafar, 48 n,.64 n.

Dhafar, 50 n, 61.

Dhaivata, 247, 249.

Dhanur-veda, 225.

Dhanvantari, 286 and » 8,

Dhér, 365.

Dhara-ddna, 283,

Dhérana, 183, 186, 190.

Dharma, 186 and n 2, 141, 180, 201 wn 2 and 4, 202 and 2, 264,

Dharma Séstra, 220, 221 # 1.

Dharmadhuaja, 208 and n 4,

Dharmdstikdya, 201,

Dharma ldbha, 207.

Dharst, 376.

Dhdta’l Kusgir, 80 2.

Dhenw, 282 » 2,

D’Herbelot, 771, 2022, 25 21, 52 n, 54 n, 55 n, 82 n, 88 n, 92 x, 106 » 1, 825 n 1, 336 21, 842 » 2,343 nal and 3, 845 , 848 n 2, 349 n, 376 n 2, - 377 2 1, 407 11,

Dhtrd, 242.

Dhird Adhtrd, 242.

Dhél, The, 255 2 6,

Dhoondhee, 251 2 1.

Dhrishta, 244,

Dhruva, 252 and x.

Dhimd-prabhd, 196 2 8.

Dhurpad, The, 251 and n 2, 256, 257.

Dhani, sound, 150.

Dhvani, a figurative style, 240 n 2.

Dhydna, 183, 186 and 2 1.

Dialogues, Plato’s, 11 2 1.

Diana, 93 x.

Dict. de la Perse, 61 , 66 n, 68 2, 81 n, 82 n, 83 n, 85 n, 86 n, 87 n, 96 xn.

Dict. of Antiquities, Smith’s, 43 n 2, 46

al. :

Dict. of Hindu Mythology, 10 x 2, 118 n 2, :

Didim, 332 and 2 1, 334.

Dido, 328 » 3.

Digambaras, The, 195 2 3, 210 and » 1.

Dig-pdla, 113.

Dikpélas, 193 n 2.

Dinawar, 82 n, 396 n 1.

Diocletian, 63 x.

Diodorus, 331 2 1, $332 » 2.

Dipaka, 250 and n 17.

Dipali, 306 n 2, 320,

Dipélpar, 316.

Dfpani, 263.

Dirgha, 135 and 2 1, 223.

Dié, 182, 133,

Diéé, 118,

Diti, 148 » 3, £87 2 1.

Diwdli festival, The, 306 and » 2, 320 and mm 8 and 4, °

Diyér Bakr, 79 and 2, 80 and x, 90, 91 n.

Diy&r Madhar, 79 and 2.

Diydér Rabiah, 75 x, 79 and 2, 80, 91 2.

Dnieper, The, 77 n, 94 , 104 2.

Dniester, The, 102 x.

D’Ohsson, 100 n, 344% 2,345 1, 848 x 1.

Doliche, 91 2.

Doldk, fortres of, 91 2.

Dominicus Cassini, 88 x 2.

Don, The, 94 n, 103 x.

Dongola, 47 7, 49 and x.

Donne, 55 x.

Dordlah, 70.

Doshe, 129, 139.

Dowson, 10 7 2,118 2 2, 114 n 2, 116 2 4, 117 » 4, 149 2 2, 159 n.

Dozy, Sappl. Dict. Arab., 67 x.

Dravatva, 185.

Drévidé, 284,

Dravya, 182 and n 2, 151.

Drik, 159.

Dyisadvati, The, 32 x 8, 83, 286 2 5,

Drishtdnta, 129, 148.

Drishtivdia, The, 204 x,

Driéya, 159.

Dryden, 890 » 1.

Dud Kbién, 847 » and x J.

60

)

“a

INDEX. 469

Daban, 326 and 2» 2, 327. Dubays al Asadi, 64 », 350 n 2. Ducam, 59.

Dukkha, 129, 135, 139, 141. Duhul, The, 255, 257, 258. Dambawand, 84.

Dambéwand Mtn., 74 ». Dirdhont, 818.

Dunkuilah, 49.

Durbachh, $12,

Darga, 277, 318, 319 n. Darvasana, The, 220.

Diita, 244.

Dati, 244.

Dvérak, 304 and n 8, 306. Dvesha, 135, 189, 141, 181, 302. Dvi-ja, 116 » 4.

Dvi-ja Brahmans, 116. Duy-anuka, 148,

Dwapara Yuga, 147 » 1, 159 n, 174» 4. Dyflah, 65 2.

Dyke of the Himyarites,; 50 2.

| eee Sea, The, 49.

Eastwick, $341 » 1.

Ebusas Island, 77 7.

Edrisi, 49 2, 54 », 56 », 60 n.

Egypt, 62, 68 and n, 73 n, 74, 75 and n, 109, 110, 118 1 2, 124, 323 3, 352, 853 and n, 424, 426 2 2.

Egyptian Sea, The, 58, 62.

Egyptians, The, 13 2 3, 53 2.

Ekdgra, 179,

Bleazar, 377.

Elements, The, 12,17 21, 180 n 1, 132, 161.

Blomonts, Euolid’e, 24.

E] Hammat e! Khabs, 71 2.

Elias, The Prophet, 875, 877, 878 and nmi.

Bliseus, 878 and » 1.

Elizabeth, Queen, 863 ».

Elliot, Sir H., 82621, 848 02, 844 un $45 nn lL and 2, 34620 Land 2, 347 nv 1 and 2, 848 nz 1 and 2.

Elliot’s Bibl, Indioa, 349 “.

470 INDEX.

Elphinstone, 340 nn l-and 2, $46 n 2, 437 n, 863 n, 42121.

El Skehr, 48 n, 61 n.

Elysian fields, The, 33 » 1.

Emerald mine, 56.

Emega, 80 7. 90 x.

Emir Shé&h Muhd-b-Tahir, 27 n 8.

Empedocles, 87 n 1, 148 » 3.

Ennias, 1138 2 2,

Enseneh, 56 x.

Eolas, 118 » 2.

Ephesus, 100 ».

Ephthalites, The, 88 ».

Epiphaneia, 90 2.

Equator, The, 46.

Era, The Divine, 416 n 1.

Erannoboas, The, 804 n 7.

Eratosthenes, 25 7 8,

Erbil, 802, —

Erdmann, 108 2.

Erek, 90 n.

Erekle, 101 n.

Erment, 60 2.

Erzeroum, 79 n, 95 n.

Eshmoam, 71 2.

Eski Kirym, 103 2.

Esneh, 55 2.

Essai sur V’hist. des Arabes, 73 n.

Etah district, 287 n 2.

Etéwah, 59,

Eternal Islands, The, 83 and n 1, 84, 41,

Eternal Wisdom, The, 325 and n 2, 826.

Ether, 12 and n 3.

Ethiopeans, The, 107.

Euclid, 24. :

Endoxus, 89 x 8.

Euphrates, The, 64, 65 , 79 n, 80, 89 x, 91, 95 xn.

Europe, 109 and n 2, 124 n, 184 2 1, 826 n 4.

Baropeans,{The, 42,

Eusebins, 72 2.

Euxine, The, 94%, 110» 1, 102, 104.

Enz, a Tarkish tribe, 342 2 1.

Eve, 825 and 21.

Totes of Pilpay, 326 » 4.

Fabricias, 109 n 1.

Fadhl-b-Sahl, 826 and » 8, $27.

Fa-Hian, 212 n.

Faid, 57 and n.

Faizi, Shaykh Abu’l Faiz, 4103, 411 and n 4, 412, 481 and 2 1, 445.

Fakhro’ddin ‘ Iréki, Shaykh, 363, 864.

Fakhro’ddin Néfitah, Mauléna, 369,

Falak, 1471.

Famn’s Silh, 65, 90 x.

Fémyah, 78 n, 90,

Férab, 102.

Ffrabr, 92,

Faramarz, 829, 830.

Farghfnah, 97 », 98 and n, 358 x 2, 363.

Farhén, 89.

Farida ddin Ganj-i-Shakkar, Shaykh, 863, 864, 865, 367, 370, 372.

Faridain, 89 n, 109, 329.

Paristén, 66 x.

Parjistan, 92,

Parmid, 359 n 8,

Farmidi, Shaykh Abd Ali, 359.

Farmul, 69.

Farmy 4b, 92.

Farrah, 373.

Farrnkh Shéh Kébnii, 363.

Farrukhzéd-b-Masaid, 341.

Férs, 66 n, 67 and n, 78, 74.

Farsakh, 18 » 1, 25.

Fartanah, 102.

Fary&b, 88 and n, 102 n.

Fs, 60.

Fasé, 73 2.

Fasting, Rules of, 298, et seq.

Faten or F&ter, 336 » 1.

Fathpdr, 59, 487 and » 1.

F&timah, 427 n 2.

Fatimite dynasty, The, 62 n.

Fayyézi, Shaykh, 420.

Fayyum, 63 and x, 100 ~.

Fazla’ lab Rashidu’ddin, 348 n 3.

Forishta, 84021, 84222, 348 » 3, 344 2 8, 345 mm 1 and 8, 346 wn 8, Sand 5 347 nn 1, 2 und 8, 348 nn Land 2, 360

t Ld INDEX. 471

n 2, 361 2 1, 362 2 3, 363 n and an 1 and 8, 364x andx 1, 365 2n, 366 nn 8 and 4, 369 n 8, 371 n 8, 421 2 1, 426 » 2.

Fernando Po, 48 x.

Ferrier’e Lectures and Remains, 2)3 n 1.

Ferro, 32 2 1.

Fettak-b-Ab{ Berdsim, 387 2.

Fez, 61 and n, 76.

Fezzén, 62 2.

Finland, 104 n- .

Firdans!, 2971, 86, 325 n 2, 327 »1, 228 nn 1 and 8, 329 and n, 380 » and x 1,881 n 1, 3827 1, 3861, 88821 839 n 1, 340 2, 401, 402.

Firdausi order, The, 854,

Firdausi, Shaykh Badru’ddin, 867.

Firdansf, Shaykh Rakau’ddin, 867.

Ffroz, Sultén, 349, 372.

Firozébéd. 67, 74 x.

Flrozfbéd{i, Mujau’ddin, 361.

Fortnnate Isles, The, 33 and 7 1, 34, 43 n 8,81 n.

Foucanx, 211 2 2, 212 2 1.

Fragment: der Bhagavati, 189 n, 200 n 6 202 2 1, 206 21.

France, 107 2, 836 » 1.

Franks, Thé, 93, 94, 101, 109, 110,

French Academy, The, 13-2 3,

Faréwah, 85.

Fardhat u’r Ram, 101.

Fory. 57. :

Fushanj, 87 2.

Fastét, 61 2, 71.

Fotabat-i-Makk{yah, The, 877 ».

Fazail-b-‘Ty4z, 857.

Gissienis 31,” Gabriel], 825 » 1.

Gagar, The, 82 » 8.

Gaia, 347 1.

Gaja-kumbha Krits, 222, 228 n» 1. Gaja Sdstra, 258.

Gajrah, 313.

Galen, 109 n 1.

Galer, Fort of, 70.

Gallicia, 100 and ». .

Gallilee, 64 7.

Gamaka, 253.

Gamdhayantah, 173 2.

Gana, 205 2 8.

Ganadharas, The, 204 n, 206 n, 207.

Gandakf, The, 304 and x 8.

Gandapida, 186 » 2.

Gandéva, 68 x.

Gandha, 185.

Gandhamédana Mountain, 30, $1.

Gdndharo, 247, 249.

Gandhéra-grdma, 246 n.

Gandbarva, 31 7 3.

Gdmdharea, 172.

Gdndharva marriage, 309.

Gindharvas, The, 172 2 8, 198 » 2, 303.

Gdndharva-veda, 225,

GaneSa, 277, 283 andn I, 319 n 3, 893 n 2,

Ganefa-Chaturtht festival, 819 n 3.

Ganesa-fishya, 205 and n 38.

Ganga, 319 x.

Gangbihisht, 29 1,

Gangdiz, 89 n,

Gangdizh, 29 and a 1, 49.

Ganges, The, 59 », 199 n 1}, 211, 285, 289 n, 803, 304} 4, 305, 306, 319 n, $22 and n 2, $23, 324.

Gangoh, 874 n 2.

Gangoyah, 374.

Ganjam, 8! n 2.

Ganj-i-Shakkar, Shaykh Farido’ddin, 863, 364, 867, 368, 370, 372,

Ganj-i-Shakkar, 864 n.

Garbe, Dr. Richard, 144 L, 169 n, 176 n1,177 2.

Gardiz, 89 n,

Gérhasthya period, The, 275,

Garhi, 308 and n 8.

Garhwdl, 226 2 2, 807 n 3.

Garimd, 187.

Garjistin, 96.

Garmsir, 68.

Garshasp, 327 » 1, 328, $29, $30.

Gdruda, science, 238.

Garuda, 198 n 2, 2398 n 3.

Garuda Purfna, The, 229, 233 n 8.

472 INDEX.

Gauna, 239 2 1, 240.

Gauna-chdndra, 318 x 4.

Gaura mukha, 287 n.

Gauri, 11, 318 2 5.

Gautama smriti, The, 221.

Gayangos, 77 7.

Gdyatri, The, 272 and n 1, 316.

Gayhat festival, 319 n 3.

Gaz, The, a tribe, 92 n.

Gehléts, The, 118.

Genoa, 102 n.

Geographia, Ptolemy’s, 43 » 2, 45, 46 al.

Geographie @’ Abnifeda, 33 7 1, 64 n.

Georgia, 96 n.

Gerard of Cremona, 80 7 1.

Gerizim, Mount of, 72 ».

Germanicia, 91 2.

Germans, The, 101 n.

Géstidaréz, Sayyid Makammad, 372.

Geta, Emperor, 56 n.

Ghadaémis, 72 and n.

Ghana, 254.

Ghéuah, 47 and n.

Ghanld-pijd, 280

Ghari, 16, 17.

Gharib, Shaykh Burhénu’ddin, 365.

Gharnétah, 76.

Gharydl, The, 15.

Ghassén, Kingdom of, 79 n.

Ghaadli, AbG Yasuf, 357.

Ghats, The, 31 » 2.

Ghaus, The, 376 2 8.

Ghazdn Khan, 81 n, 348 » 8.

Ghazipér, 59.

Ghaznah, Ghazni or Ghaznin, 68, 73, 88 n, 89 n, 828 7 1, 830, 340, 341 and n 1, 842, 348, 344 n 4,360 n 2, 865, $68 and 7 1, 407.

Ghaznavi, Aba’! Hasan al-, 862 x 1.

Ghaznavi, Shaykh Shihabu’ddin Ahmad, 366.

Ghazzah (Gaza), 63.

*Ghazzdli, Shaykh Abmad, 357.

Ghelfeca, Port, 50 x,

Ghichak, The, 255.

Ghilin, 343 2 3.

Ghirjistan, 341 n 2.

Ghiyés, Maulana, 365.

Ghiyéspar, 346 n 4, 365 » 1. Ghiyésa’ddin Hasan, 361, Ghiyagu’ddin Sam, Sultin, 341, 342 Ghiyésu’ddin Tughlak Shah, 365 n 1. Ghorian dynasty, The, 425 x” 1. Ghoris, The, 341.

Ghujduwin, 359 n 2.

Ghujdewéni, Kh. Abdo’l Khilik, 359.

Ghinghri,, 313.

Ghitah of Damascas, 72 n.

Ghuz, Tarkish tribo, 342 n 1.

Gibbon, 62 », 92 n, 102 n.

Giléa, 83, 84, 91.

Gilboa, 64 n.

Gildemeister, 52 n, 77 n.

Gird, 67 n.

Gtta, 253 and n I.

Gladwin, 19 nn 1 and 4, 27 2, 48 n, 57 n, 70 n, 77 n, 89 n, 95 n, 122 1.

Godavari, The, 304 and « 5.

Gog, 721.

Gogo, 47 n.

Gogra, The, 304.

Goldstiicker, 177 n 1.

Gomati (Gumti) The, 304,

Gomedaka Dwipa, 29. .

Gonarda, 177 1 1.

Gonardiya, 177 7 1.

Gondwana, 81 » 2.

Gonika, 177 n 1.

Gopal, 251 » 1.

Gor, 74 2.

Gorakshandtha, 185 2» 1.

Go-sahasra-ddna, 282.

Goféla, 189 2:

Gotama, 127, 189 2 2, 148 2}, 151 7, 152 nl, 168271, 18871, 204 and n, 205 n 2, 206 n 1, 810 and x 2.

Gotama Sutra, 139 2 2.

Goths, The, 100 2».

Gotra, 202, 310 and n 2.

Gotrika, 202 n. ;

Gough Prof., 1682, 16971, 213 }, 216 71,

INDEX. 473

Gough’s Philosuphy of the Upanishads, 182” 1, 163 21.

Govindinandas, 201 1 4.

Graha, 249 n.

Graha, offerings, 158 n.

Grahana-samd patti, 183.

Grdhya-samdpatti, 188

Graiveyaka, 195 n 2.

Granada, 76 2.

Great Bear, The, 108 » 3, 810 nt.

Greece, 8, 16 » 8, 36 n 2, 41, 78, 123 » 1, 132, 186 n, 189 n 1, 187 x» 4, 829, 830, 378.

Greeks, The, 12 7 3, 18 n 8, 18, 19, 20,

22, 24, 25, 28, 29, 33, 834and a1, 36, .-

86, 37, 383, 40, 997, 109, 110, 112,°° 126, 127, 224 n, 246 n, 254 n, 328n 4, 837 n 1.

Green Sea, The, 48 n.

Griffiths’ Ramayana, 804 n 6.

Gryihastha, The, 210 2 1, 275, 277.

Grihitri-samdpatti, 183.

Grihya-Sidtras, The, 222 n 1.

Guadalajara, 77 n.

Guido, 247 n 3.

Gujarét, 52 n, 58, 59 and n, 119, 251 and n 1, 252, 267, 365, 871, 873, 874, 422,

Gujarati, 120 n.

Gulbarga, 872 n 1.

Gulbéri, Mauléné Humamuo’ddin, 422.

Guluband, 313,

Gumi, The, 287 n, 304 and x 3.

Guna, 182, 134, 151.

Gunaka, 25,

Ganawa, 67 n.

Guptd, 242.

Gurgaéni Canon, The, 4!.

Gargani, Shaykh Abo’! Kisim, 359.

Gargéni Tables, The, 20.

Garjén, 407 » 1.

Guru, 238.

Guru (mana), 243.

Garukka], 809 n 3.

Gurutva, 185.

Gushtésp, 86 », 328 and n 4, 419 n 2,

Gasht#éap N&mah, The, 328 and n 1.

Goyard, 47 n, 51 n, 52 n, 66 n, 73 n, 78 n, 79 n, 82 n, 85 n, 92 n, 96 2, 98 2.

Gwalior, 59, 251 and 7 1.

Gymnosophists, The, 33! n 2,

n 1, 332

Hoavre.:-ssaur, 854, 355.

Habibi order, The, 354.

Hada olan, The, 118.

Hadath, 91 2.

Haddad, Shaykh Abd Jaafar-b-, 352.

Hadikah, The, 16 n 3.

Hadithah, 80 and n.

Hadiyan, 71.

Hadramaut, 48, 50 n, 51 n, 53.

Hadrian, 56 n.

Hadyah, 47.

Hafiz Abra, 1, 212, $26 and n 1.

Hafiz Shirazi, 392.

Haft-josh, 15 n 2.

Haibatpati, 70 ».

Haibatpar, 70.

Haihnya tribe, The, 29) » 1.

Haikal i Zuhra, 98.

Hajar, 57, 64, 65.

Hajar Shughlan, 64 x,

Haji Hamid, 373.

Haji Khalfa, 27 » 3, 326 » 1, 876 n 1, 801 n, 421 n 4, 44471,

Hajipir, 59.

Hajjaj-b-Yasuf, 66 n, 840, 855.

Hajubari, Shaykh Ali, 362.

Hakikat a’) Hakaik, The, $41 and x 1,

Hakikato’) Molk, 392.

Hakim Abu’l Fath, 393.

Hakim Asadi, 328 » 1.

Hakim Até, 358.

Hakim Human, 387 n 1, 393.

Hakim Mirza, 383 and n 1.

Hakim Sani, 16 2 8, 341 and nl.

Hakim-i-Tirmidi, 353.

Hakimis, The, 351.

Hal, 72.

Haléward, 88, 93 n.

Haldarah, 60.

Hali-ibn-Yakub, 51.

474

Hall, Dr. Fitz-Edward, 184 2 1, 140 x 2, 151 2, 15221, 153 xm 1 and 8, 156 x, 217 al.

Halléj, Husayn-b-Manguir, 854, 894 and ai.

Hallajis, The, 351.

Halman of Damascus, 354.

Ham, 75 2; 109, 827.

Hamadén, 80 x, 82 x, 82 and », 83 and 2, 84 2, 896 vn 1, 348 a 8.

Hamarty4, Island ‘of, 77.

Hamit, 90.

Hamath, 78 n, 90 n.

Hamdan tribe, The, 50 x.

Hamdu’llah Kazwini, 848 n 1.

Hamdin, al-Kagsar, 851.

Hamidu’ddin Négori, Kézi, $64, 367, 363, 369.

Hamidu’ddin SawAli, Shaykh, 367.

Hamid Wazir, 854 2 2.

Hamilcar Barcus, 93 7.

Hammamet, Galf of, 62 2.

Hammawiyah, Shaykh Saadu’ddin, 356.

Hammer Pargstall, 25 » 1, $387 », 343 2,

Hamzah, Shaykh, 375.

Hanbal, Im&m, 421.

Hangkow, 62 n.

Hang-tcheou, The, 62 a.

Hang-tcheon-fou, 73 n

Adis, 313.

Hinsi, 370, 372, 373.

Hansi Hisar, 70.

Hanamén, 159 x, 350 z 5, 892 n 2.

Hanumant, 159 and » 1.

Hér, 313.

Hardwar, 70, 226, 306.

Hardy, 211 2 2, 292 » 1.

Hari, 107 1.

Haridvdra, 306.

Harikhbanda, 31.

Haril, The, 122.

Hérim, 90.

Hariri, al, 50 », 51 », 57 n, 350 2 2.

Hérita, The, 221.

Harivanga, The,230 and n 2

Harivarsha, 8! 2 1.

Harmatelie, 831 n b.

INDEX.

Harmnz Sapor, 75 2. Harr4n, 79 and n, 89. Harsha, 802.

. Hartmann, 139 « 1, 178 2.

Hérdén, 361.

Hasé, al, 57 2.

Hasébah, 60.

Hasan, al, 854, 359 » 4, 362.

Hasan Bigr{, 354 and n 8, 355.

Hasan Tahir, Shaykh, 373, 374.

Hashid, olan of, 53 n.

Hastini, 2438.

Hasya-rasa, 240.

Hatnawar, 70.

Hattékh, 79.

Hauran, 72 2.

Hausam, 84.

Haya, 290 n 1. ;

Hayéta’) Hayawén, The, 891 x.

Hazirah, 69.

Hazfrasb, 97 and x.

Hazéribiégh Dist., The, 189 n,

Hazrat Azizkn, 358, :

Heavens, The, 37 and 2 1.

Heber, 876 and n 2.

Hecatsnus, 109 n 2.

Hegel, 159 n.

Heliopolis, 74 2 378 2 1.

Helmand, The, 68 and n, 91 2.

Hemachandre, 204 n, 206 1.

Hemahasti-ratha-ddna, 283.

Hemakata, Mountain, 30, 3.

Hems (Hims), 78 x.

Hem, 425 and n 2.

Henry II, Emperor, 336 n 1.

Heraclea Pontica, 101 n.

Herat, 86 », 87 and n, 380, 352, » 3, 861, 21 867 x1.

Herenles, 98 2.

Hereules, Pillars of, 34 n 1.

Hermann, lt 71.

Hermes, astronomer, 22 » 2.

Hermes, god, 712. -

Hermes Trismegistas, 109 and » 1.

Hermetic books, The, 109 » 1,

Hermius, 109 » 1.

Hormontiis, 60 n.

6

INDEX, 475

Hermopolis Magna, 71 n.

Herodotus, 84 2 1, 109 n 2, $29 n.

Hesperides, The, 443 » 1.

Hetw, 144 and n 1, 145.

Hetudbhdsa, 129, 146.

Hevilath, Land of, 32 n 2.

Hiddyat’al Hikmat, The, 14 1.

Hierapolis, 79 n. ;

Hij&z, 54 n, 57 and n, 58 and n, 60,110, 241, 360 and » 1, 367, 397, 419, 424.

Hillah, 64 and n, 72 n.

Himachala, Mountain, 30, 31.

Himalayas, The, 69, 226 x 2, 290 n 1, 305 2 2.

Hima, snow, 30 3.

Himavén, 30 2 8.

Himavat, 32 n 3.

Himyarites, The, 50 n, 51 n.

Hind, 338 n 1.

Hind, Ummu Salimah, 354 » 8.

Hindann, 287 and 2 3.

Hindi, 120 n.

Hindola, 260 and 2 17.

Hinda Astronomy, 12, 14 n 2, 35.-

Hinduén, The, 358 n 38.

Hindu Kush, The, 88 vn,

Hioven Thsang, 212 n, 306 n 4.

Hipparchua, 20 2m 1 and 8, 24 nn 1 and 2,88 3, 4) 1.

Hippemolgi, 290 » 1.

Hippo Regius, 77 n.

Hirdbud, 332.

Hirah, 72 and n, 89 n,

Hirah, Kingdom of, 79 n.

Hiranmaya-khayda, 31.

Hiranvat, 31 7» 1.

Hivanyagarbha, 163 and 1, 165, 171 n, 172 2 1, 231, 282 and n 2,

Hiranyagarbha-dina, 282.

Hiranya-kdémadhenu-ddna, 282,

Hiranyakaégipa, 287 » 1, 288 and n 1.

Hiranydkeha, 287,and nz 1 and 2.

Hiranyaptra, 287.

Hiranydéea-dana, 282.

Hiranydfva-rathea, 282.

Hiranyd Vihus, 804 7 7,

Hiranyd Vahu, 804 n 7.

Hishém, Caliph, 81 a.

Hign Badén, 60.

Hign Dimlaut, 50 and n.

Higa Ibn Umérah, 67.

Hisn Kaifs, 91.

Hign Mahdi, 66.

Higsn Mangar, 78.

Hisn Tiiz, 49 n, 50 n.

Hisno’t Tak. 91,7.

Hispania Tarraconensis, 98 n.

Hist. Crit. de Manichée, 337 n 1.

Hist. des Hans, De Guignes’, 52 » 343, n 3,

Hist. des Mathématiques, 18 nn 1 and 3, 19 » 8, 20 nn 1 and 8, 24 n 2.

Hist. da Bas Empire, 99 n.

Hist. of Charles V., 107 2.

Hist. of Persia, Malcolm’s, 327 n 1.

Hist. of Sanskrit Lit., Max Miiller’s, 222 nn 1 and 2, 224 n and mni, 2 and 3. 2261,

Hist. of the Mongols, 100 2,

Hit, 64.

Hitopadesa, The, 890 n 2.

Hodgson, 169 2.

Heoomus, 80 n 8.

Holé festival, 321.

Holiké, 821 n 2.

Hollow Syria, 64 7.

Hom, The, 116 and x 8,

Homa saorifice, The, 157 n 2, 229 and n 4, 274, 275, 276, 277, 279, 281, 808, 816, 322 n 2.

Hombon Shahpir, 96 n,

Hower, 33 » 1, 109 2 2, 290 » 3, 328.” 8.

Hooker, 124 n.

Hopkius, 261 n 1, 264 n 2, 269 n 1, 270 ‘nn and 4, 271 nn 2 and $, 300” 8, 3), mn 2 and 6, 302 n 1, 808 n 2, $11 n 2,

Horizon, The, 40.

Hormaz, 58 and n.

Hormuzd, 337.

Horometry, 16 n 4.

Horas, 60 n.

Hrasvd, 185 and n lL.

Hrasva, 223.

Hubayrah of Basrah, 857.

Hubayrf order, ‘The, 854.

476 INDEX.

Haulagd Khan, 2v n 2, 82 n, 345, 346,

Huldlis, The, 35).

Halwan, 65, 81 2.

Ham4mn’ddin Gulbéri, Manléna, 422.

Huméyiin, 2511, 349 and 2 1, 374, 883, 421 n 1, 425.

H amboldt’s Cosmos, lin 1, 22738, 24 a lL and 2, 29 71, 37 21, 88 xn 2 and 3.

Buns, The, 290 7 1.

Hanter, Sir W., 120 2.

Hurktyah, The, 257.

Huruk, The, 257.

Husému’ddin Ménikpiri, Shaykh, 371, 873.

Husayn, al, 354, 357, 360, 361, 391.

Hosayn Mansar, 849, 854 and m 2.

Hasayn Shark{, Sultén, 251 2 1.

Hosayn Waiz, 841 7 1.

Hasayo!, Myion’ddin Abdu’l KaAdir, 375.

Hashang, 325, 326.

Hydaspes, The, 303, 392 » 1.

Hydraotes, The, 304,

Hyphasis, The, 808.

Hazaifah Marashi, 357.

Hwang-choo, 52 x.

Hyde, 29 » 1, 337 » 1.

Hyrcania, 110 n 1,

i eer 17071.

Tolis, 325 2 1.

ibn Aalam, 20.

Ibn Abi Safra, 407 2 1.

Ibn Arabi, Shaykh, 421.

Ibn Batiitah, 49 n, 52 2, 67 n, 73 n, 79 x, 80 n, 832, 942, 96 n, 100 x, 101 , 102 nm, 103 n, 119 2 1, 822 n 4.

Ibn Fakth, 66 2, 74 2,

Tba Hajr Askaléni, 361 and n, 424 and nl.

Ibn Haukal, 58 7, 66 x, 67 2, 68 n, 80 2, 88 n, 84 2, 97 n, 98 2.

Ibn-i-Baghawi, 852.

Ibn-i-Jalé, 353.

Tbn Khaldiu 40 21, 49 n, 6827, 68 2 80 n, 96 2, 100», 101 x.

Ibn Khallikén, 73 2, 326 n 3, 359 a 4, 407 n 1, 42h a4.

Tbn Sayd, 33 2 1, 47 2, 48, 492, Sia, 52 n, 54 2, 55 2, 57 n, 61 n, 62 n, 76 v 101 n, 104 n.

Ibn Sina, 421 n 4.

Ibn Térik, 23, 25 n 2.

Ibn-o’l-Athir, 854 n 3.

Ibn-n’) Féridh, Shaykh, 421.

Ibréhim Adham, 350 x 1, $57.

Ibréhim Khfn, 425 n 1

Ibréhim, Sultén, 840, 341, 370.

Ichehhd, 128, 135.

Iconium, 90 n, 95 n, 421.

Idd, 283.

Idol temple of Somnat, 58.

Idrisi, 49 n, 54 2, 56 2, 60 n.

Tha, 190,

Yj, 423 and n 2, 424,

Ikb&lmand, 348.

Ikhmim, 65, 56 », 71 x.

Ikehwaku, 117, 188 2 1.

Tlahabis, 83, 59, 232, 306, 824.

Viék, 97 and x, 98 x.

Davrita, 81 2 1.

llévrita-khanda, 81.

Tidiz, 842 n 2,

Tlistria, 102 x.

Tkhén dynasty, The, 83 n, 348 n 3,

likh&ni Txbles, The, 20 x 2.

Iméda’ddin Tisi, Shaykh, 367.

Im&mis, The, $91, 421.

Imdabhéti, 206 » 1.

Imperial Gazetteer, The, 51 2, 59 , 69 n, 120 n, 226 » 2, 287 2 and n 2, 288 n, 289 n, 8038 n 8, 304 n 5, 805 n 4, 314 n 8, 872 n 1, 875 n.

India, 48 and n, 51, 62 and n, 53 n, 54 2, 68, 59.60, 66, 68, 69, 70, 109, 110 and 21,121 av 4 and 5, 122 » 2, 123 » 1, 161 », 187 n 4, 241, 252, 827 2 1 828, 829, 830, 834, $36 and 21, 837, 838, 839 and n 1, 840, 841, 342, 343 and n 1, 345, 349, 388 21, 419, 421 n 1

Indian Antiquary, The, 189 n, 204 n, 205 21.

Indian Ocean, The, 48 n, 52 7».

INDEXS 477

Indian Zodiac, The, 21 n 1.

Indica, Albirini’s, See Albirdni’s India.

Tudisch Alterthum, 113 2 2.

ndra, 113 and n 2, 148 1 8, 153 n 8, 172 and » 1, 194 n, 211 » 2, 220, 282 2, 286 and n 4, 287, 290.

Indra-Jdla, 239.

Indra-khanda, 31.

Indrapat, 346 » 4,

Indriya, 120, 132, 189 n 1,170, 173, 174, 175.

Indus, The, 89, 843, 847.

Inshai Abu’l Fazl, 387 » 1.

Institutes of Manu, See Manu’s Ordi- nances.

Iraj, 109, 875.

Jraék, 9, 60, 64 and n, 65 and n, 72 and n, 73,75, 80, 85 n, 86 n, 108, 120, 326, 842, 344, 396 n 1, 407 n 1, 428.

Trak, Persian, 80 n.

Iram, 49 and n.

Yran, 44, 100, 241, 330, 344, 363, 419, 423, 425.

Travati, The, 304.

Irbil, 80, 81 2, 84 2.

Irkah, 90.

Irmak, The, 101 n.

Iron Gate, The, 95 n.

Isibah, fi tamyiz is Sihébah, The, 361 n, 42421.

Isakdje, 102 n.

Ysan, 110.

Yéanao, 113 and n 2, 194 n.

Isbarain, 85 n, 87 7.

Iscion, The, 60 x.

Isfahan, 38 y 2, 66, 67 », 73 and n, 83 2, 84 and 2, 85, 92 n, 325, 360 2 1, 396 2 1.

Tsfandiyar, 85 n, 828, 829 and ” and 1, 337, 449 n 2.

Isfijab, 88 x, 98 and n.

Isfinjéb, 101 n.

Ishak, M., b-, 337 2.

Isharah ilé ilmi’l Mantik, The, 422 2.

Ish&rat, The, 421 and n 4,

Ishbiliyyah, 76.

Isis, GO 2.

Véitva, 187.

61

Iskalkand, 92.

Iskandaran, Gulf of, 78 n.

Islam, City of, 81 7.

Islands of the Blest, 33 and n 1.

Islands of the Happy Ones, 43 n 3.

Ismiilians, The, 396 » 1.

Isné, 85.

Issachar, tribe of, 64 n.

Issus, 78 x, Gulf of —, 110 1.

Istakhr, 67, 74 , 423 n 2,

Istakhri, 58 2, 74 7, 98 n.

Tstilahdt n’l fanin, The, 14 21, 87 » 1, 13071.

Tatitalah of Héfiz Abraé, 826 and n 1.

Istros, 94 .

Yévarakrisuna, 169 n.

Uévara-pranidhdna, 184,

Udvara-pijd, 279.

Yévara-updsana, 180, 182,

Féwara, 160, 161, 163 x 1, 168 n, 170 9 2.

Italy, 24.7 2.

Itil, The, sea, 101 n, 103.

Iviza Island, 77 n.

Pydzi order, The, 354.

*Izzu’d Daulah Bakhtydr, 407 n 1.

digs as Sadik, Imam, 859 and a 4,

Jabal district, The, 80 n, 81 and n, 82, 83 and 7, 84 and x, 87 n, 362 n 2.

Jabal Mar Elyas, 878 » 1.

Jabal Shammar, 57 2.

Jabali, The, 221.

Jébalk, 104.

Jabart, 47 n.

Jabbul, 75 x.

Jabuiisa, 102.

Jabulké, 104 n.

Jabnis4, 104 n.

Jacob, 72 n.

Jacob, Major, 141 n 2, 155 n 2,157 41, 160 21, 161 41, L643.

Jacobi, 188 1, 189 n, 198 2, 204 », 208 nn Land 3, 209 n.

Jadons, The, 118.

Jaen, 77 n, 100 2.

Jaffa, 64.

478

Jag, 115. dg, 281. Jagannath, 15] n, Jag-deé, 33. Jahangir, Memoirs of, 119 » 1. Jabansoz, Alfin’ddin, 341, Jahrb. der Lit., 337 » 1. Saimini, 116 nm 2, 152 andz 1, Jaimini Darfana, The, 155 2 1. Jaina School of Philosophy, 188 et seq, 2138. Jaina Sitras, The, 189 n, 193 2, 204 n. Jainas, The, 169 n, 188 1, 189 n, 191 n 8, 192 n1, 193, 195 23, 197, 202 2, 210 and 7 2, 238 » 2, 293, 305 n 4. Jainism, 188 2 1, 192 2 1, 204 n. Jaiptr, 287 n 3, 804 n 5, 814 7 3. J&jram, 91. Jalal, Shaykh, 369. Jalaliya fakirs The, 369 4, Jalaln’ddin Awadhi, Shaykh, $70. Jalalu’ddin Bukhari, 371 and n 3, 874. Jalalu’ddin Dawwani, Maulana, 422, 424, Jalalo’ddin Firoz Khilji, 346, 347 », 366, n 3. Jalalu’ddin Mahmid al Kazwini, 4447 1. Jalalu’ddin Mankburni, 343, 344 and n 4, Jalalo’ddin Muhammad, Shaykh, 870. Jalalo’ddin Tabrizi, Shaykh, 366. Jélik, 68. Jalikdn, 68 n. Jalindha, Shaykh, Gujarati, 373. Jallikiyyah, 100. Jalpa, 129, 145. Jalila, 65 and x. Jim, 92. Jéma, The, 311 and n 4. Jamadagni, 229, 290, 291 ” 1, 303 x 6. Jamal, Shaykb, 875. Jamal Kital, 370. Jamalu’ddin Hansawi, Shaykh, 370, 372. Jamiélu’ddin Sulayman, 863 Jambu, The Eugenia, 28 n 2. Jambu, The, 28 x 2. Jambu Dwipa, 28 andn 2, 29, 81 and ni, 82,192 71,195 28,

INDEX.

Jam{, 350 2 1, 351 n, and nn 1 and 2, 352 nn 2 and 4, 353 2 and 7 J, 355 nn1 and 2, 856 nn, 1 and 2, 857, » 1, 858 nn, 859 n 1 862 n 3, 376 2 8, 418.

Jami’at Tawarikh i Rashid{, 348 and n 3.

Jamshid, 89 2, 827 and 7 1, 411 71.

Jamuna, The, 292, 303, 304 n 5, 324, 848, 369, 423.

Janad, 50.

Janaka upa-amriti, The, 22).

• Jana-loka, 32, 164 7 2.

Janfrddana, 10 2 1,

Jand, 97.

Jandah, 102.

Jandal, 338 n 1.

Janman, 140, 141.

Janndbah, 66 n, 67.

Janihahs, The, 118.

Janus, 94,

Japanese, The, 292 n 1.

Japa-yagina, 281.

Japhet, 7 n 1, 109.

Jardsandha, 292.

Jarbhdkéin, 84.

Jarbah, Isiand of, 61.

Jarejahs, The, 118.

Jarid country, The, 72.

Jarjaréyé, 65.

Jarmi, 47.

Jarrett’s History of the Caliphs, 62 n, 65 n, 78 n, 80 n, 343 n 8, 352 0 1, 426 nm 2.

JarGn, 78 and x.

Jatas, The, 290 n 3.

Jati, 129, 133 n 2, 146, 150.

Jatukarnya, The, 221.

Jauf, 50 2, 57 n.

Jaunpiar, See Jounpir.

Jaunptri, Ssyyid Mahammad, 373.

Jausen, 74.

Java, 49 n.

Java Archipelago, The, 48 7, 51 x, 54 x.

Javidan Khirad, The, 825 n 2,

Jawain, 91.

Jawe, 318,

Jaxartes, The, 88 n, 97 », 98 and n.